The most obvious example of Jain influence on later Vaisnava attitudes is found in the philosophy of M. K. Gandhi. Although some of Gandhiji's ideas were inspired in part by European precedents, others—such as his faith in Ahimsa, asceticism, cleanliness and vegetarianism—owe more to his Gujarati Vaisnava background. From quite early times, Gujarat has been a center of Jain influence, and all these beliefs derive their original impetus more from Jainism than Hinduism.9
In India, as elsewhere, we can see social and economic preoccupations and puritanism take the place, in official religion, of the pursuit of communication with celestial powers through rites and mystical experience. A morality of toil, abstinence, productiveness, and civic conformity tends to become a substitute for a morality of love, ecstasy, happiness, and freedom.
A predominance of moralistic ideas marks the decline of a humanity given over to materialism and leads to dispair, isolation, poverty, and drugs, for those who do not have the strength to stand up against it. Throughout the history of the Kali Yuga, we witness this conflict between mystical, erotic, intense, creative, orgiastic, ecological Dionysianism, protector of nature and the animals, and urban, exploitative, restrictive, puritanical moralism. The great ages of artistic creativity and mystical exaltation are related to the predominance of Shaiva or Dionysian tendencies. Economic progress, social order, detrimental power of states and tyrants are Vaishnava-Apollonian in character.
The West
AT the same time that Lakulishä caused the Shaiva revival, we see similar movements born in many other parts of the globe. In the West, Mithraism developed, and in the Middle East, Simon the Magician and Isha (Jesus) appeared, whose unconventional and liberating message approached that of Shaivism. Jesus opposed the mercenary mentality and the caste of Pharisee priests, and chased the merchants from the temple. He despised material possessions. He rejected puritanism and defended the prostitute and the adulteress. He never condemned physical love and was probably not unaware of its Platonic form (see Mark 15:51). He surrounded himself with the common people. He evoked, in the Last Supper, the rites of sacrifice and the consumption of the victim. His transfiguration and the transubstantiation of the Virgin are Shaiva concepts. He was born in a cowshed, like Gosâlä, near the ox, the sacred animal, and the ass, the impure animal. We know little of his teaching, which, soon after his disappearance, was distorted by the anti-Christ, Paul of Tarsus, who was to misrepresent his message, creating the exact opposite of it, and to give birth to a puritanical and tyrannical state religion, conflicting with the Gnostics of earliest times, in order to gradually seize political power. The Dionysian heritage was for a long time maintained in esoteric Christian sects as well as in Judaism and Islam in the occult traditions of Kabbala and Sufism, but has gradually deteriorated until it is no more than an intellectual game.
India Today
VIEWED from the outside, at the top of the social and cultural hierarchy of present-day India, we find the Aryan Brahmans, some of them great scholars, but many of them civil servants or political figures, and some artists. Then come the princely families and warriors serving in the army and in various occupations, except for craft and commerce. Real power belongs to the powerful caste of merchants, manufacturers, and shopkeepers, which constitutes the middle class of modern India. Two intermediate classes, foreign in origin, consider themselves to be superior to the rest of the population: these are the Muslims on the one hand and Europeans and Christians on the other. The pre-Aryans, who constitute the vast majority of the population, are considered by these various invaders as "natives" (in the colonialist sense of the word), good as a rule for manual, craft, or industrial work and for farm labor. In reality, they form a parallel civilization, albeit unofficial, in which the dynasties of priests, princes, and merchants are maintained. Princes often falsified their genealogy in order to claim Aryan origins, but they do not marry outside their clan. Guilds of architects, sculptors, painters, and musicians are part of the artisan castes. It is from among these allegedly inferior groups that most of the initiates to the monastic orders, who hand down the occult tradition of the ancient knowledge, are recruited. Sometimes they absorb members of other origins.
This world of ascetics, the Sadhu, the Sannyâsî, actually plays a major but secret role in contemporary Hinduism, where—although more often than not, caste Hindus feign ignorance of it—the tradition of Shaivism and Tantrism occupies a much more important place than the Vedic tradition in the religious practices of Indians of all castes.
PART TWO
SHAIVA PHILOSOPHY
1
The Ways of Knowledge
Approaches (Darshanä)
DURING THE AGE OF THE SHAIVA REVIVAL, WHICH CORresponds to the beginning of the Christian era, the age in which the historical and religious texts of Shaivism were published, we see the reappearance of philosophical, cosmological, and scientific concepts, the legacy, long kept a secret, of the learning of the ancient world.
Apart from technical treatises, astronomy, mathematics, medicine, architecture, and so forth, philosophical and cosmological thought is grouped into six major systems called the Points of View or Approaches (Darshanä[s]).
It is thanks to the contrasts and contradictions resulting from a diversity of approaches that we can evaluate and criticize the value of the information given by the senses. The main approaches by which we can attempt to understand the nature of the world are arranged in pairs, each pair consisting of an experimental method and a method of intellectual rationalization. The first two methods concern the impermanent world (ksharä), that is, the visible world: these are Vaïsheshikä (study of the specific), or scientific observation, and its counterpart, reasoning, or Nyâyä (logic). Then comes Sâmkhyä (cosmology) and Yogä (introspection), whose object is the study of the permanent aspects (aksharä) of the world, the universal laws that govern the cosmic world and the world of life. Sâmkhyä concerns the macrocosm, nature, and the universe, and Yogä the microcosm, the internal world of the living being.
These two methods are strictly coordinated and interdependent. They are the instruments of higher knowledge by which man is distinguished from other living beings. Yogä is the exploration of ourselves, this special body, this abode, in which our consciousness resides. Yogä seeks to analyze the structures of our interior universe, to study and develop the powers latent in it, and eventually to go beyond the barriers of the senses, the limitations of relative time and space that imprison us. The Sâmkhyä enables us to transpose the elements of Yogä to the universal plane and to establish correspondences between the macrocosm and the microcosm, between Universal Man (purushä) and individual man (jivä).
The last two Darshanä(s) are called Mîmânsâ (profound intuition). Their object is the hierarchy of creation, the relationships between the different levels of beings, between men, spirits, and gods. Every religious approach, whether ritual or mystic, is part of Mîmânsâ. Two sorts of Mîmânsâ are distinguished: the first, called Pûrvä Mîmânsâ (preliminary intuition), is, in a certain way, experimental. It concerns the efficacy of rites and the technical means, including invocation and prayer, which allow us to establish a contact with the celestial world and to influence it. We can judge their effectiveness according to the results obtained.
The second Mîmânsâ is called Uttarä Mîmânsâ (higher intuition). It includes cosmogony, theology, the study of the celestial hierarchies, and the description of the invisible world of spirits and gods. Included in the Mîmânsâ are the intuition of mystics, the supranormal perception of mediums, and all the relations between man and what is, to him, the supernatural.
By coordination of the basic ideas of the different approaches, or Darshanä(s), observations of the visible world linked with the extrasensory perceptions gained through Yogä, it has been possible to establish a general theory regarding the world and man, as well as the history of the universe and its destiny. The importance of the Darshanä(s) rests in their contrasts. It is because of
their divergences, contrasts, and incompatibilities that we have some idea of the nature of the world. The transcendent or divine reality of the world is defined as "that in which opposites coexist."
The pre-Aryan theory of the Darshanä(s), whose concepts we can see showing through in all stages of Indian civilization, was not pieced together again in the Sanskrit language until after the decline of Buddhism and Vedism, at the time of the Shaïvä revival. We have a first summary of it in Dravidian language (ancient Tamil) in the Manimekhalaï", a novel of the fourth century which expounds both the materialistic and atheistic theory, Lokâyatä, attributed to the mythical sage, Brihaspati, and his commentator, Chârvâkä, as well as the philosophical theories of jaïnism and Buddhism. In this text Buddhism is considered to be derived from jaïnism.
For the Manimekhalaï" (book 27) "the six systems of philosophy are Lokâyatä (materialism) taught by Brihaspati; Buddha or Buddhism originating from jaïnism (jinä); Sâmkhyä (cosmology) codified by Kapilä; Nyâyä (logic) taught by Akshapâdä (alias Gautamä—not the Gautamä who founded Buddhism); Vaisheshikä (physics) codified by Kanadä; and Mîmânsâ (metaphysics) taught by jaimini. These people all lived before the writing of Sanskrit.
2
Vaïsheshikä and Nyâyä
Science and Logic
THE CONCEPTS OF VAÏSHESHIKÄ AND NYYÄ WERE handed down by monastic sects, in particular the Pâshupatä and the Kâlâmukhä, who have sometimes given them a religious flavor. The materialistic theory of Vaïsheshikä was considered as a sort of religion. Superstition of scientific reality and the near deification of science is not just a present-day phenomenon.
According to Gunaratnä, the author of a commentary on the Shaddarshana Samucchayä (the six systems of philosophy) of Haribhadrä, Vaïsheshikä and Nyâyä are part of the philosophy of Shaivism. Bhâsarvajñä, the author of the Nyâyä Sârä, also wrote the Ganä-Kârikâ, a work that explains the doctrine of the sect of pâhupatä. The followers of Nyâyä revere eighteen incarnations of Shivä, the last being Lakulishä.
Philosophers of the medieval period, such as Sankarâchâryä, acknowledge the Shaiva origin of the Darshanä(s). When he discusses the doctrine called Ishvarä-Kartri-Vâda, "the power of action of the divine principle," which sees the divine person (Ishvarä) as the operative cause of the world, Sankarâchâryä attributes the teachings of Vaïsheshikä and Nyâyä to the Mâheshvarä(s), the sectarians of Shivä.
The Experimental Method (Vaïsheshikä)
VAÏSHESHIKÄ is the study of the impermanent (ksharä), the visible or apparent world (vyaktä). The word Vaïsheshikä means "study of particulars," that is, the observation of the perceptible world. With the aid of the methods of logic (Nyâyä), the Vaïsheshikä constitutes what can be called the scientific approach, which uses reasoning, deduction, hypothesis, and experimentation to analyze the information provided by the senses, whose perceptions are limited to the visible or impermanent world, also called the "world of movement" (jagat) since it is formed only of energy through which it manifests itself in the form of gravitation and pulsations.
Using observation as a starting point, by analyzing the data provided by our senses and noting the points common to various forms of observation, we can deduce some general principles. The scientific method calls for the development of the means of observation, the instruments that increase the power of the senses. Telescopes, microscopes, and radars today allow us to push our observations even further. Yet these remain limited by the very nature of the senses. We do not observe reality in itself but reality in relation to the limits nature imposes on us.
However, the development of psychic powers, which are part of physical man but are not usually developed, allow the addition of important elements of observation. These powers, developed by the techniques of Yogä, such as perception beyond the limits of dimension and of relative time, can eventually be used. They belong to the physical world and are in no way occult.
It is impossible to prove the existence of a deity by observation of the visible world. For this reason, all true science can be nothing but atheistic. All belief is, by its very nature, the opposite of science. One believes or one knows. The scholar who mixes his religious or moral ideas with his scientific work betrays both science and religion.
Related to Vaïsheshikä is the very important school of atheistic and materialistic philosophers called Lokâyatä, whose best-known advocate was Chârvâkä, almost a millennium before our era. For Chârvâkä, science can acknowledge no evidence other than Pratyakshä (that which is before the eyes). As regards the materialism of Chârvâkä, only matter is eternal; thought and conscience appear as fermentations of matter. There are no gods, nor is there life after death. Materialist theory (bhûtä-vâdi) was part of the doctrine of the jîvikä(s), as taught by Makkhali Gosâlä, the master of Mahâvîrä and Buddhä. A summary of it is found in the Manimekhalaï.
Mixing yeast, sugar, and other substances results in fermentation, in the same way consciousness and the feelings are born of combinations of elements. When they disintegrate, consciousness disappears, as resonance disappears when the drum is dismantled. The Tattvä(s) (constituents of the world) are the same as those of the Lokâyatä(s) (materialists), for whom the only means of proof is Pratyakshä (visual evidence). What exists in the present and we enjoy in life is the only reality. There is no other life in which we can reap rewards for our actions. The Onbadukadir, the ancient Tamil work which summarizes the teachings of Gosâlä, deals with five subjects, which are life and the four elements, earth, water, fire, and air, which are made up of indivisible atoms. When they gather, these are perceptible; when they separate, they are invisible. It is agglomerates of these atoms that form a mountain, a tree, a living body. When they disaggregate, the atoms that make them up disperse. That which perceives these phenomena is called life . . . atoms are permanent, have no beginning, and are indestructible. They take on various appearances, depending on the circumstances. No new type of atom appears or is transformed into something else. Atoms are indivisible and do not evolve. They combine into conglomerations, to separate in the end, each keeping its own identity. They can assemble in such density that they become hard as diamonds, or take the light form of bamboo. When they spread over the earth, like moonlight, they take the form of different elements according to their relative density. They are therefore called by different names. They form the seed of the shoot which develops. They form the solid earth, the fluid water, the fire that burns, or the moving air. An atom can be seen only by those who possess the higher eye of knowledge. Others cannot see it. When combined to form the elements (bhûtä), they can be seen. In the same way, a single hair cannot be distinguished in the shadow of twilight, but a lock of hair is easily seen.
The combinations of atoms can be black, dark blue, green, red, gold, or white. These are the six forms that the combinations of atoms take, in order of superiority. Only combinations of pure white atoms can break up and attain freedom (vîdu = mukti). This represents the path of destiny. Those who wish to achieve the end of suffering must reach this stage ... such is the teaching of Markali (Gosâlä). [Manimekhalaï, book 27]
The theory of Vaïsheshikä was explained in Sanskrit before Lakulishä, by Ulûkä, nicknamed Kanâdä (the atom eater). The texts of the Suträ(s) of Kanâdä which have come down to us were reworked in order to introduce certain conceptions of Brahmanism.
In the theory expounded by Kanâdä, the principle of the universe is the energy called Adrishtä (the invisible). The world is formed of nine substances, which are space, time, consciousness (or the soul), thought (manas), and the principles of the five elements, of which four (earth, water, air, and fire) are made up of atoms.
The two great moralistic and atheistic religions, jaïnism and the original Buddhism, have been very influenced by Vaïsheshikä, the materialism of Gosâlä and Chârvâkä, and the philosophers of this school.
Logic (Nyâyä)
THE intellectual method that cor
responds to Vaïsheshikä is logic (Nyâyä), by which, with the aid of analogies and deductions, the observed information can be coordinated in order to arrive at definite conclusions.
Nyâyä analyzes forms of reasoning and means of proof. According to the theory expounded by Gautama, the author of the main treatise on Nyâyä, the elements of logical reasoning include a proposition (pratijñâ), the investigation of a cause (hetu), an example (udâharanä), a relationship (upanayä), and precedents (nigamä).
The means of proof (pramânä) envisaged by Nyâyä are:
Pratyakshä, direct evidence
Anumânä, deductive inference
Upamânä, similarity, analogy
Shabdä, the word, the authority of predecessors
Science only makes progress through the accumulation of knowledge over the course of generations.
The Sâmkhyä accepts as means of proof only Pratyakshä, Anumânä, and Shabdä, but adds Anubhava, experience. The Mîmânsâ also accepts Anupalabdhi, the absence of proof to the contrary, and Arthâpatti, assumption. Gautama explains the forms of reasoning by means of illustrations that are well known, such as the real effects of an unreal cause, for example, the case of the snake and the rope: reacting to the sight of a snake, I break my leg (real effect); but the snake was only a rope (nonexistent cause). According to the Manimekhalaï: "The means of proof (prâmanä) are ten in number, but there also exist eight "semblances of proof' (prâmanä abhâsä), of which one must beware. The six basic means of proof are as follows.
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