Factors that Led to the Battle of St. Clair
Indian and American Settler Animosities
The Northwest Indian War (1785-1795)
Harmar’s Expedition
A Brief Background of Some of the Major Personalities in the Battle of St. Clair
General Arthur St. Clair (1737-1818)
Little Turtle and the Indians
The Order of Battle
The First Signs of Distress
An Expedition that Was Lacking In Intelligence
Indian Organization and the Defeat of St. Clair
The March to the Wabash River
The Battle Begins
Avoiding the Bayonets
A Bloody Crescent Moon
The Retreat
The Effects of the Defeat of St. Clair
St. Clair’s Defeat as a Catalyst for American Action
American and Indian Leaders after the Defeat of St. Clair
General St. Clair
The Indians
A Little Known Battle with Major Historical Implications
Bibliography
A Note from the Author
The Greatest Indian Victory – The Greatest American Defeat
Just over eighty years before General George Custer and his American cavalry forces were decimated by Sioux warriors on the plains of eastern Montana, the U.S. military incurred an even bigger loss on the Wabash River, near what is now Fort Recovery, Ohio. In this epic battle that was fought between American regulars and Kentucky militia on one side and an army of warriors who formed the army of coalition of American Indian tribes on the other, more American lives were lost than any other U.S.-Indian battle in history, including the Battle of Little Bighorn. November 4, 1791 is not a date that most know when it comes to American history, or any aspect of history for that matter, but on that day about fifty miles southeast of present day Fort Wayne, over 632 Americans were killed and 283 were wounded, compared to only 61 Indian fatalities, which is three times what Custer lost in 1876. Despite these numbers, the battle – which is named for the losing commander instead of the nearest town, river, or other landmark as most battles in history – has been largely forgotten not only by the mainstream, but also by scholars and historians. Part of the reason for the cursory treatment of the Defeat of St. Clair by professionals stems from the fact that leadership drama appears non-existent. The American forces had no flamboyant, yet caustic, figures to lead them, such as Custer and although some of the Indian leaders certainly seemed interesting enough to fill that void, they were for the most part illiterate and failed to record the battle in writing from their own voices. The result is that the Defeat of St. Clair is overlooked not for its lack of importance in American history, but instead that it seemingly fails to titillate the imaginations of a public obsessed with instant gratification and simple results. An examination into the events that led to the Defeat of St. Clair, the battle itself, and the repercussions of the battle reveals that not only was the battle as “exciting” as the Battle of Little Bighorn, or any other major battle fought on American soil for that matter, but that the battle was part of an extremely important part of American history.
The importance of the Defeat of St. Clair cannot be mitigated as it formed part of the process that eventually expelled the American Indians from what was known as the Northwest Territory in the eighteenth century (essentially the modern day states of Ohio, Michigan, and Indiana). The Defeat of St. Clair also proved that Indians, by adapting to their circumstances, could defeat a modern Western army: some scholars have argued that the battle was essentially lost by American incompetence; but closer examination reveals that although the Americans made many mistakes, the Indians tactfully took advantage of the opportunities given to them. The defeat of the American army also brought to light the organized resistance of the northwest Indian tribes and showed the American public that their enemy was more than mere savages that many thought they were. Although the Indian coalition won the Battle of St. Clair, it proved to be a catalyst in the Americans’ desire to win the greater Northwest Indian War and helped to cement the name of General “Mad” Anthony Wade in the history books. The victory that the Northwest Indian Confederation relished after their victory of St. Clair was short lived and of little benefit to them in the bigger geo-political picture of the time. Ultimately, the Defeat of St. Clair and the Northwest Indian War was a dress rehearsal for the American forces for the War of 1812, which addressed many of the issues left unresolved after the conclusion of the Northwest Indian War, particularly the conflict of American settlement in the Northwest versus Indian sovereignty.
Factors that Led to the Battle of St. Clair
Indian and American Settler Animosities
In 1791 the United States was a new nation, with its war hero, General George Washington, leading the country as the first president. The new nation was wealthy in natural resources and growing in population, primarily through immigrants from Europe who saw endless possibilities to acquire wealth in the American west. In the years directly after the American Revolution, the untamed American west was roughly equivalent with the modern states of Ohio, Indiana, Michigan, Illinois, and Wisconsin, which were collectively incorporated by the U.S. government in 1787 under the Northwest Ordinance and became known as the Northwest Territory. The soil of the Northwest Territory was black and perfect for farming and there was also plenty of wild game abound, which American settlers could live on while they built their homesteads. There was just one problem –there were already plenty of people in the region.
The most numerous people in the Northwest Territory before American settlers arrived were the many American Indian tribes, which included some of the following: Ojibway, Miami, Shawnee, Huron, and Algonquin. Each of these tribes was unique and had varying degrees of technological and societal development, but all were fiercely independent. The independent nature of the Northwest Indian tribes put most of them on the side of the British during the American Revolution; the British assured tribal leaders that they would limit immigration and settlement in the Northwest. The Indians could afford to deal with small numbers of white traders, fur trappers, and various other frontiersmen, but large scale American settlement was viewed with animus. Large numbers of American settlers not only posed a threat to the Indians in terms of sheer numbers overwhelming and displacing tribal culture, but they also brought with them the potential end to hunting grounds. American settlers were almost uniformly farmers and ranchers, which meant that they usually needed to clear large tracts of wooded land to make fields and pastures. This process was often detrimental to Indian hunting grounds, which were also threatened by settlers over hunting the grounds as they built their farms. American settlers, cognizant of Indian affiliations during the Revolution, came to resent most of the Indians of the Northwest because of their pro-British sentiments along with other cultural and racial reasons.
After the British lost the American Revolution, they also lost the ability to regulate emigration from the coast to the interior, particularly the Northwest. At first, Washington and the U.S. government tried to avoid conflicts with the various Indian tribes, but as the trickle of American settlers became a stream and then a torrent, armed conflict became inevitable. Although the tribes were not unified and all pursued different interests in the region, many believed that American settlement should not take place west of the Pennsylvania state line and north of the Ohio River. Most of the tribes of the Northwest were unified on this important point, which became the primary thread that held the tribes together during their wars with the United States. Under the first Treaty of Fort Stanwix in 1768, the Iroquois Confederacy ceded all land south of the Ohio River to the British government under the agreement that white settlement north of the river would be prohibited for the most part. Most other Northwestern tribes also saw the first Treaty of Fort Stanwix as valid and blamed that U.S. government for not recognizing it. Unfortunately for most of the Indian leaders, Western/British law was not som
ething they were well versed in as the Americans believed that according to their laws they did not have to honor the provisions of the first Treaty of Fort Stanwix since that agreement took place between the Iroquois and British, not the Americans.
The various Indian tribes were not the only inhabitants in the Northwest Territory when it was opened for American settlement; a small scattering of French and British traders, trappers, and even soldiers populated the region. Despite being defeated by the Americans and technically driven from the Americas south of Canada, the British maintained a political and military presence in the Northwest Territory for several years after the war. Under the Treaty of Paris in 1783 that officially ended the American Revolution, the British recognized American independence and ceded control of the Northwest to the Americans; but the reality was that British were slow to relinquish their influence in the region. After 1784 the British exercised de facto control over the Northwest as the Americans were too young and militarily weak to mount any major campaign in the region. In clear violation of the Treaty of Paris, the British built Fort Miamis in 1784 near present day Toledo, which solidified their presence in the region and their influence on the Indian tribes. British Indian agents – government officials tasked with living among the various tribes and negotiating settlements, alliances, etc. with them – quickly began to stir the cauldron of hate the Indians had towards the Americans. As the number of attacks by Indians on American settlers increased, there was often a British agent behind the bloodshed.
The Northwest Indian War (1785-1795)
The Defeat of St. Clair was just one of many battles that comprised the Northwest Indian War, also known as Little Turtle’s War, and the Ohio Indian War. Although President Washington had no ill will personally towards the Indian tribes, he wanted to open the Northwest Territory for American settlement and the only way the old general saw fit to do that was to pacify and/or expel the Indians from the territory. President Washington turned to his war-time friend and secretary of war, Henry Knox, to formulate a plan that would permanently solve their Indian problem in the Northwest; although both men demonstrated incredible military abilities against the British during the Revolution, the Indian tribes of the Northwest would prove to be an especially different, and at times more difficult, foe that required vastly unique strategies and leadership philosophies. History shows that the successful commanders during the war – Indian and American – were the ones who were flexible and could adapt their tactics accordingly to the given situation. The unsuccessful commanders, such as Generals Harmar and St.Clair, were continually afflicted with a myopic vision of the battlefield and a fallacious view of their enemy.
The Indian tribes of the Northwest Territory were especially mobile and adaptable. Although the tribes had a number of permanent and semi-permanent settlements, which will be discussed more thoroughly below, mobility was their warriors’ prime advantage over the Americans. The Indians’ principle war path was quite large and stretched from Detroit in the north, down the Maumee River and into what is now Ohio and Indiana. The path could lead them to lucrative raids on isolated American settlements, or to more fortified American positions that were often built along the pre-modern highway. The war path also gave the tribes access to the Ohio River, which was used by both Indians and whites to transport goods and people to the Mississippi Valley. The warriors were familiar with the hundreds of rivers in the Northwest Territory that they used for hunting and fishing, as well as highways on which they travelled. A well supplied band of warriors could quickly descend on an American settlement, kill the inhabitants, and then escape with whatever provisions they desired, including captives, long before American troops could arrive. Washington and Knox’s war against the Northwest Indians was planned to ultimately cut off the Indian warpaths permanently, which they believed would then void their ability to wage war. Washington then believed that with their ability to wage war either severely hampered, or destroyed altogether, then the Northwest Indian Confederacy would have to agree to the Americans’ terms. As Washington and Knox planned their war against the Indians, the Indians also made plans.
The idea of warfare between Americans and Indians, during all periods of American history, has become somewhat clouded by images from Hollywood and other popular media. Essentially, two images of the American Indian comes from these media: in one the Indian is a violent savage who seems incapable of rational or logical decision making and in the other the Indian is a perennial victim who can do little to nothing to defend himself. These views are for the most part at odds with the reality that the Indian tribes of the Northwest developed a fairly sophisticated system to deal with overarching and critical matters such as war with the United States. The various tribes of the Northwest formed the formed the Northwest Indian Confederation in 1786, which was intended to deal with such thorny issues as the certain numbers of warriors that member tribes were required to send to particular battles. The primary responsibilities of the Confederation were concerned with how to wage war against the Americans and most importantly, if they should decide to go to war at all. The decision to go to war was a prolonged, gradual process because it required a consensus among the different tribal leaders. Gaining a consensus was not always easy since it required traditional enemies to sometimes swallow their pride and place the greater good above old rivalries and disputes. In a sense the Northwest Indian Confederation can be compared to the present day European Union; the membership was/is comprised of several entities with similar cultural backgrounds, but also some old disputes and rivalries that could manifest at any moment. With both sides prepared for war politically, it was the Americans’ turn to initiate the first major hostilities.
Harmar’s Expedition
The first major hostilities in the Northwest Indian War were ones that would directly affect the outcome of the Battle of St. Clair. Knox gave the reigns of war to General Josiah Harmar to drive the Indians from the Northwest Territory, but particularly to inflict as much damage as possible on the Shawnee and Miami. Chief Little Turtle of the Miami was the Indian leader in this campaign, which ended horribly for the American forces. Between October and November, 1790 Little Turtle led his warriors to several victories over the Americans, as the latter were unable, or unwilling, to adapt to the Indians’ unconventional fighting tactics. After a number of small, but disastrous, encounters with the Indians, Harmar led his men defeated and hungry back to Fort Washington (present day Cincinnati, Ohio) 150 men short from when he left. Historians view Harmar’s Campaign as a major victory for the Indian Confederation and a demoralizing loss for the Americans; but closer examination reveals that Harmar may have set the Indians back further than believed. Although Harmar only inflicted minor casualties on the army of the Indian Confederacy, he destroyed around 300 Indian homes and burned around 20,000 bushels of maize. With decreasing amounts of wild game in the Northwest Territory due to increasing American settlements, the Indians became more dependent on agriculture to feed themselves so any disruption to their food stores would have hurt tremendously. On the other hand, the psychological boon for Little Turtle and his warriors must have been immense. They no longer doubted their abilities and knew that when the time came they could stand toe to toe with any American army. It was just this type of confidence that the Indians needed in the Battle of St. Clair.
A Brief Background of Some of the Major Personalities in the Battle of St. Clair
General Arthur St. Clair (1737-1818)
Although Arthur St. Clair’s name may be forever associated with a devastating military disaster, it was only a small portion of his long and fruitful career of public service. St. Clair was born in Scotland to humble beginnings, but like many young people of his time he came to British North America with the British Army. Even when America was still a British colony it earned the reputation as a land rich in resources where a man could make a fortune despite a potentially low standing in society. Military service in the colonial guard was a way for many young men,
such as St. Clair, to gain passage to British North America and begin their ascents towards wealth and fame. While serving with the British, St. Clair requited himself honorably in the French and Indian War (1754-1763), for which he was awarded the rank of lieutenant. Later, when the colonies were gripped by the turmoil of the American Revolution, St. Clair joined the patriot cause and made his way up to Major General. St. Clair was happy with his role in the war and everything seemed to be going well for the young general until he ordered his men to retreat from the assault on Fort Ticonderoga in July, 1777. St. Clair and a force of about 3,000 men held the strategically important fort, but when British General John Burgoyne 7,000 regulars and almost another 1,000 Indians, St. Clair decided that discretion was the better part of valor and so abandoned the fort. He was court martialed, but exonerated, for his retreat at Ticonderoga, although he would never command any troops in the field for the remainder of the war.
After the war, St. Clair did what many veterans did then and in periods before and after – he tried his hand at politics. The United States was for the most part a discombobulated mess in the three years after the Revolution as the Articles of Confederation was the government’s constitution that held the states together in a weak confederacy. St. Clair was elected president of the Congress in 1787, but only served one year as the Constitutional Convention ratified the United States Constitution one year later. In 1788 St. Clair was appointed to his most important post, the governor of the Northwest Territory, which he would serve in some capacity until his death. Surviving portraits depict St. Clair as a stoic soldier, with a slight air of aristocracy about him, which no doubt made him fit in with Washington, Jefferson, Franklin, and the other American revolutionaries who also had a touch of the aristocratic. All extant primary resources indicate that although St. Clair may have been no Napoleon or Alexander the Great on the battlefield, he was thoughtful, intelligent, and sincerely cared for his men.
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