49. Cook, H. (2004). The long sexual revolution: English women, sex, and contraception 1800–1975. Oxford, UK: Oxford University Press. Portions of this account of Cook’s work and material that follows previously appeared in Fine, C. (November, 2012). The vagina dialogues: Do women really want more sex than men? The Monthly.
50. Cook (2004), ibid. Quoted on p. 12.
51. Cook (2004), ibid. Quoted on p. 161.
52. Cook (2004), ibid. Quoted on p. 106.
53. Fielding, M. (1928). Parenthood: Design or accident? London: Labour. Quoted in Cook (2004), ibid., on p. 133.
54. Reviewed in Sanchez, D. T., Fetterolf, J. C., & Rudman, L. A. (2012). Eroticizing inequality in the United States: The consequences and determinants of traditional gender role adherence in intimate relationships. Journal of Sex Research, 49(2–3), 168–183.
55. Schick, V. R., Zucker, A. N., & Bay-Cheng, L. Y. (2008). Safer, better sex through feminism: The role of feminist ideology in women’s sexual well-being. Psychology of Women Quarterly, 32(3), 225–232; Yoder, J., Perry, R., & Saal, E. (2007). What good is a feminist identity? Women’s feminist identification and role expectations for intimate and sexual relationships. Sex Roles, 57(5–6), 365–372. See also Sanchez et al. (2012), ibid.
56. Rudman, L., & Phelan, J. (2007). The interpersonal power of feminism: Is feminism good for romantic relationships? Sex Roles, 57(11–12), 787–799.
57. Tavris, C. (1992). The mismeasure of woman: Why women are not the better sex, the inferior sex, or the opposite sex. New York: Touchstone. Quoted on pp. 211–212 and p. 212, respectively.
58. Stewart-Williams, S., & Thomas, A. G. (2013). The ape that thought it was a peacock: Does evolutionary psychology exaggerate human sex differences? Psychological Inquiry, 24(3), 137–168. Quoted on p. 156.
CHAPTER 4: WHY CAN’T A WOMAN BE MORE LIKE A MAN?
1. Terman, L. M., & Miles, C. C. (1936). Sex and personality. New York: McGraw-Hill. Quoted on p. 1.
2. Rapaille, C., & Roemer, A. (2015). Move up: Why some cultures advance while others don’t. London: Allen Lane. Quoted on p. 44.
3. Wolpert, L. (2014). Why can’t a woman be more like a man? The evolution of sex and gender. London: Faber & Faber.
4. Casey, P. (September 30, 2014). So why can’t a woman be rather more like a man? Irish Independent. Retrieved from http://www.independent.ie/life/health-wellbeing/so-why-cant-a-woman-be-rather-more-like-a-man-30621028.html on September 6, 2015.
5. Casey (2014), ibid.
6. Wolpert (2014), ibid. Quoted on p. 21.
7. Richardson, S. S. (2013). Sex itself: The search for male and female in the human genome. Chicago: University of Chicago Press. Quoted on p. 9.
8. Blackless, M., Charuvastra, A., Derryck, A., Fausto-Sterling, A., Lauzanne, K., & Lee, E. (2000). How sexually dimorphic are we? Review and synthesis. American Journal of Human Biology, 12(2), 151–166.
9. Joel, D. (2012). Genetic-gonadal-genitals sex (3G-sex) and the misconception of brain and gender, or, why 3G-males and 3G-females have intersex brain and intersex gender. Biology of Sex Differences, 3(27).
10. From http://www.isna.org/faq/y_chromosome.
11. See http://isna/org/faq/conditions/cah.
12. Fausto-Sterling, A. (1993). The five sexes: Why male and female are not enough. Sciences, 33(2), 20–24.
13. Fausto-Sterling, A. (1989). Life in the XY corral. Women’s Studies International Forum, 12(3), 319–331. Quoted on p. 329. See also historical account in Richardson (2013), ibid.
14. See Richardson (2013), ibid.
15. Ainsworth, C. (2015). Sex redefined. Nature, 518(19 February), 288–291. Quoted on p. 289.
16. Liben, L. (2015). Probability values and human values in evaluating single-sex education. Sex Roles, 72(9–10), 401–426. Quoted on p. 410.
17. Or its equivalent, in species with a different chromosomal sex-determination arrangement.
18. Eric Vilain, a clinical geneticist at University of California, Los Angeles, quoted in Ainsworth (2015), ibid., on p. 289.
19. Some material in this chapter describing the work of Joel et al. (2015) in the Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences was previously published in Joel, D., & Fine, C. (December 1, 2015). It’s time to celebrate the fact that there are many ways to be male and female. The Guardian. Retrieved from http://www.theguardian.com/science/2015/dec/01/brain-sex-many-ways-to-be-male-and-female?CMP=share_btn_tw on December 3, 2015.
20. Joel, D., & Yankelevitch-Yahav, R. (2014). Reconceptualizing sex, brain and psychopathology: Interaction, interaction, interaction. British Journal of Pharmacology, 171(20), 4620–4635. Quoted on p. 4621.
21. McCarthy, M., & Arnold, A. (2011). Reframing sexual differentiation of the brain. Nature Neuroscience, 14(6), 677–683. Quoted on p. 677.
22. For example, Alexander, G. (2003). An evolutionary perspective of sex-typed toy preferences: Pink, blue, and the brain. Archives of Sexual Behavior, 32(1), 7–14; Bressler, E. R., Martin, R. A., & Balshine, S. (2006). Production and appreciation of humor as sexually selected traits. Evolution and Human Behavior, 27(2), 121–130.
23. Joel, D. (2011). Male or female? Brains are intersex. Frontiers in Integrative Neuroscience, 5(57). See also McCarthy, M. M., Pickett, L. A., VanRyzin, J. W., & Kight, K. E. (2015). Surprising origins of sex differences in the brain. Hormones and Behavior, 76, 3–10.
24. See Joel (2011, 2012), ibid.
25. Presenting the findings of Shors, T. J., Chua, C., & Falduto, J. (2001). Sex differences and opposite effects of stress on dendritic spine density in the male versus female hippocampus. Journal of Neuroscience, 21(16), 6292–6297.
26. This observation is indebted to Joel.
27. McCarthy et al. (2015), ibid. Quoted on p. 6.
28. Joel, D., Berman, Z., Tavor, I., Wexler, N., Gaber, O., Stein, Y., et al. (2015). Sex beyond the genitalia: The human brain mosaic. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, 112(50), 15468–15473. Quoted on p. 15468.
29. Joel et al. (2015), ibid.
30. The numbers of people with consistently “intermediate” brain features (neither “male-end” or “female-end”) were similarly modest, never exceeding 3.6 per cent. See Table 1, p. 15469.
31. Critiques of Joel et al.’s (2015) conclusions demonstrate that statistical techniques can be used to classify brains as belonging to females or males with reasonably high accuracy. However, as Joel and colleagues point out in a response, there is no biologically meaningful sense in which brains that are close in this statistical space are more similar than those that are more distant. Moreover, statistical techniques that successfully classify sex in one data set are unsuccessful in doing so in others. See Del Guidice, M., Lippa, R. A., Puts, D. A., Bailey, D. H., Bailey, J. M., & Schmitt D. P. (2016). Joel et al.’s method systematically fails to detect large, consistent sex differences. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, 113(14), E1965; Joel, D., Persico, A., Hänggi, J., & Berman, Z. (2016). Response to Del Guidice et al., Chekroud et al., and Rosenblatt: Do brains of females and males belong to two distinct populations? Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, 113(14), E1969–E1970.
32. Joel et al. (2015), ibid. Quoted on p. 15468.
33. Joel (2011), ibid.
34. de Vries, G., & Forger, N. (2015). Sex differences in the brain: A whole body perspective. Biology of Sex Differences, 6(1), 1–15. Quoted on p. 2.
35. de Vries, G. J., & SÖdersten, P. (2009). Sex differences in the brain: The relation between structure and function. Hormones and Behavior, 55(5), 589–596. Quoted on p. 594, references removed.
36. For numerous examples, see Fine, C. (2010a). Delusions of gender: How our minds, society, and neurosexism create difference. New York: Norton. For discussion of a recent, high-profile example, see Fine, C. (December 3, 2013). New insights into gendered brain wiring, or a perfect case study in neurosexism? The Conversation. Retrieved from https://theconversation.com/new-insights-into-gendered-brain-wiring-or-a-perfect-cas
e-study-in-neurosexism-21083 on December 4, 2013. For analysis of two years of the human neuroimaging scientific literature, documenting frequency of such “reverse inferences,” see Fine, C. (2013a). Is there neurosexism in functional neuroimaging investigations of sex differences? Neuroethics, 6(2), 369–409.
37. For explicit statements to this effect, see Fine, C. (2010a, 2013a), ibid.; Fine, C. (2013b). Neurosexism in functional neuroimaging: From scanner to pseudo-science to psyche. In M. Ryan & N. Branscombe (Eds.), The Sage handbook of gender and psychology (pp. 45–60). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage; Fine, C., Joel, D., Jordan-Young, R. M., Kaiser, A., & Rippon, G. (December 15, 2015). Why males ≠ Corvettes, females ≠ Volvos, and scientific criticism ≠ ideology. Cerebrum; Fine, C. (2014). His brain, her brain? Science 346(6212), 915–916.
38. For arguments to this effect, see, for example, Cahill, L. (2006). Why sex matters for neuroscience. Nature Reviews Neuroscience, 7, 477–484; de Vries, G., & Forger, N. (2015). Sex differences in the brain: A whole body perspective. Biology of Sex Differences, 6(1), 1–15; McCarthy, M., Arnold, A., Ball, G., Blaustein, J., & de Vries, G. J. (2012). Sex differences in the brain: The not so inconvenient truth. Journal of Neuroscience, 32(7), 2241–2247.
39. Einstein, G. (May 8, 2014). When does a difference make a difference? Examples from situated neuroscience. Neurogenderings III. University of Lausanne, Switzerland, May 8–10, 2014. Podcast available at http://wp.unil.ch/neurogenderings3/podcasts/.
40. Yan, H. (August 8, 2015). Donald Trump’s “blood” comment about Megyn Kelly draws outrage. CNN. Retrieved from edition.cnn.com/2015/08/08/politics/donald-trump-cnn-megyn-kelly-comment/ on December 31, 2015.
41. Schwartz, D., Romans, S., Meiyappan, S., De Souza, M., & Einstein, G. (2012). The role of ovarian steriod hormones in mood. Hormones and Behavior, 62(4), 448–454. See also Romans, S. E., Kreindler, D., Asllani, E., Einstein, G., Laredo, S., Levitt, A., et al. (2013). Mood and the menstrual cycle. Psychotherapy and Psychosomatics, 82(1), 53–60.
42. Einstein (2014), ibid.
43. Moore, C. (1995). Maternal contributions to mammalian reproductive development and the divergence of males and females. Advances in the Study of Behavior, 24, 47–118. For discussion of this point in relation to human neuroimaging, see Fine (2010), ibid.; Hoffman, G. (2012). What, if anything, can neuroscience tell us about gender differences? In R. Bluhm, A. Jacobson, & H. Maibom (Eds.), Neurofeminism: Issues at the intersection of feminist theory and cognitive science (pp. 30–55). Basingstoke, UK: Palgrave Macmillan.
44. Maestripieri, D. (January 14, 2012). Gender differences in personality are larger than previously thought. Psychology Today. Retrieved from https://www.psychologytoday.com/blog/games-primates-play/201201/gender-differences-in-personality-are-larger-previously-thought on February 3, 2016.
45. Wade, L. (September 19, 2013). Sex shocker! Men and women aren’t that different. Salon. Retrieved from http://www.salon.com/2013/09/18/sex_shocker_men_and_women_arent_that_different/ on September 25, 2015.
46. de Vries & SÖdersten (2009), ibid. Quoted on p. 594.
47. de Vries, G. (2004). Sex differences in adult and developing brains: Compensation, compensation, compensation. Endocrinology, 145(3), 1063–1068.
48. Fausto-Sterling, A. (2012). Sex/gender: Biology in a social world. New York & London: Routledge.
49. Fausto-Sterling (2012), ibid. Quoted on p. 31, references removed. Fausto-Sterling cites the work of Gahr and colleagues. Gahr, M., Metzdorf, R., Schmidl, D., & Wickler, W. (2008). Bi-directional sexual dimorphisms of the song control nucleus HVC in a songbird with unison song. PLoS One, 3(8), e3073; Gahr, M., Sonnenschein, E., & Wickler, W. (1998). Sex difference in the size of the neural song control regions in a dueting songbird with similar song repertoire size of males and females. Journal of Neuroscience, 18(3), 1124–1131.
50. See McCarthy et al. (2015), ibid.
51. See McCarthy & Arnold (2011), ibid.
52. Moore, C. (1984). Maternal contributions to the development of masculine sexual behavior in laboratory rats. Developmental Psychobiology, 17(4), 347–356; Moore, C., Dou, H., & Juraska, J. (1992). Maternal stimulation affects the number of motor neurons in a sexually dimorphic nucleus of the lumbar spinal cord. Brain Research, 572, 52–56.
53. See Auger, A. P., Jessen, H. M., & Edelmann, M. N. (2011). Epigenetic organization of brain sex differences and juvenile social play behavior. Hormones and Behavior, 59(3), 358–363; de Vries & Forger (2015), ibid.
54. West, M. J., & King, A. P. (1987). Settling nature and nurture into an onto-genetic niche. Developmental Psychobiology, 20(5), 549–562. See also Lickliter, R. (2008). The growth of developmental thought: Implications for a new evolutionary psychology. New Ideas in Psychology, 26(3), 353–369.
55. Griffiths, P. E. (2002). “What is innateness?” The Monist, 85(1), 70–85. Quoted on p. 74.
56. Chack, E. (January 25, 2014). 21 pointlessly gendered products. BuzzFeed. Retrieved from http://www.buzzfeed.com/erinchack/pointlessly-gendered-products#.abowqEoPQK on February 6, 2016.
57. Fausto-Sterling, A. (2016). How else can we study sex differences in early infancy? Developmental Psychobiology, 58(1), 5–16.
58. de Vries & Forger (2015), ibid. Quoted on p. 11.
59. See discussion in Fine, C. (2015). Neuroscience, gender, and “development to” and “from”: The example of toy preferences. In J. Clausen & N. Levy (Eds.), Handbook of neuroethics (pp. 1737–1755). Dordrecht, Netherlands: Springer.
60. For discussion of the contrast between “development to” and “development from” conceptions of development, see Moore, C. L. (2002). On differences and development. In D. J. Lewkowicz & R. Lickliter (Eds.), Conceptions of development: Lessons from the laboratory (pp. 57–76). New York: Psychology Press.
61. For example, “The functional significance of an environmental stimuli (like [simulated maternal grooming]) altering sex differences remains unclear, but this may serve to prepare the offspring for the type of environment it will encounter as an adult.” Edelmann, M. N., & Auger, A. P. (2011). Epigenetic impact of simulated maternal grooming on estrogen receptor alpha within the developing amygdala. Brain, Behavior, and Immunity, 25(7), 1299–1304. Quoted on p. 1303.
62. Henrich, J., & McElreath, R. (2003). The evolution of cultural evolution. Evolutionary Anthropology, 12(3), 123–135. Quoted on p. 123.
63. See http://www.broadwayworld.com/bwwtv/tvshows/WIFE-SWAP-/ about.
64. Pagel, M. (2012). Wired for culture: Origins of the human social mind. New York: Norton. Quoted on p. 2.
65. Wood, W., & Eagly, A. (2012). Biosocial construction of sex differences and similarities in behavior. In J. Olson & M. Zanna (Eds.), Advances in experimental social psychology (Vol. 46, pp. 55–123). Burlington, MA: Academic Press. Quoted on p. 56.
66. For example, Starkweather, K., & Hames, R. (2012). A survey of non-classical polyandry. Human Nature, 23(2), 149–172.
67. Wood & Eagly (2012), ibid. Quoted on p. 57.
68. Wood & Eagly (2012), ibid., indeed suggest that, to a considerable degree, gender roles recruit neurohormonal mechanisms.
69. See Wood & Eagly (2012), ibid.
70. Goldstein, J. (2001). War and gender: How gender shapes the war system and vice versa. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press; van Wagtendonk, A. (August 21, 2014). Female Kurdish fighters take arms against Islamic State extremists. PBS NewsHour The Rundown. Retrieved from http://www.pbs.org/newshour/rundown/female-kurdish-fighters-take-arms-islamic-state-extremists/ on September 8, 2014.
71. Wood & Eagly (2012), ibid. Quoted on p. 57.
72. Hyde, J. (2005). The gender similarities hypothesis. American Psychologist, 60(6), 581–592.
73. These and subsequent interpretations of effect sizes are drawn from Table 1 of Coe, R. (2012). It’s the effect size, stupid: What the “effect size” is and why it is important. Annual Conference of the British Educational Research Association, September 12–14, 2002, University of Exeter, Devon. Retrieved
from www.leeds.ac.uk/educol/documents/00002182.htm on December 31, 2015.
74. Zell, E., Krizan, Z., & Teeter, S. R. (2015). Evaluating gender similarities and differences using metasynthesis. American Psychologist, 70(1), 10–20.
75. Carothers, B. J. & Reis, H. T. (2013). Men and women are from Earth: Examining the latent structure of gender. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 104(2), 385–407.
76. Reis, H. T., & Carothers, B. J. (2014). Black and white or shades of gray? Are gender differences categorical or dimensional? Current Directions in Psychological Science, 23(1), 19–26. Quoted on p. 23.
77. Schwartz, S. H., and Rubel, T. (2005). Sex differences in value priorities: Cross-cultural and multimethod studies. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 89(6), 1010–1028. Schwartz & Rubel assessed the importance of basic values across seventy countries. Across samples, the median effect size was d = 0.15, and the largest was d = 0.32 (for power). Age and culture explained considerably more variance than did sex.
78. Patten, E., & Parker, K. (2012). A gender reversal on career aspirations. Pew Research Center. Retrieved from www.pewsocialtrends.org/2012/04119/a-gender-reversal-on-career-aspirations/ on March 24, 2015.
79. See Chapter 5 of Fuentes, A. (2012). Race, monogamy, and other lies they told you: Busting myths about human nature. Berkeley: University of California Press.
80. See reported meta-analytic results in Hyde (2005), ibid.
81. Cameron, D. (2007). The myth of Mars and Venus: Do men and women really speak different languages? Oxford, UK: Oxford University Press. Discussing the work of Kulick, D. (1993). Speaking as a woman: Structure and gender in domestic arguments in a New Guinea village. Cultural Anthropology, 8(4), 510–541.
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