British inquiry on bullying: House of Commons (2007).
Rise of zero tolerance: Skiba et al. (2006) and author interviews with the chairman of the APA’s zero tolerance task force, Cecil Reynolds.
popie-jopie: Author interviews with Cillessen; and deBruyn and Cillessen (2006).
Studies connecting popularity and alcohol use: See, for example, Allen et al. (2006) and Allen and McFarland (2008).
Kids who are “socially busy”: Author interview with Claire Hughes.
Estimate that bistrategic controllers could be as many as one out of six children: Jacobs et al. (2007).
Adolescents’ time spent in interactions with adults and peers: Spear (2000) in Chapter 7 sources; authors’ interviews and correspondence with Baird and Allen.
Chapter 10, Why Hannah Talks and Alyssa Doesn’t
University of Washington studies on babies’ language and video use: Zimmerman et al. (2007a) and Zimmerman et al. (2007b).
Infant language measure/CDI: The Zimmerman et al. studies employed what’s known as the “Short-form CDI”—a list of 89 words that are considered highly indicative of the breadth of a young child’s vocabulary. The full-form CDI is a list of every word—it’s meant to create a real-time index of a child’s entire vocabulary—but, depending on the age of the child, it can take trained researchers as much as two to three hours to administer the full CDI. Therefore, in phone surveys such as those conducted by the University of Washington, the Short-form CDI is really the only practical alternative—and its results are reliable enough to satisfy scholars in the field. Indeed, some consider the full-CDI to be ideal for the scientist, but overkill for the parent and child. Author notes from IASCL Conference, Edinburgh, Scotland (2008); and Fenson et al. (2000).
Aigner-Clark credits Kuhl: Burr (1997) and Morris (1997).
Infant segmentation of language: Jusczyk (1999); Newman et al. (2006); and Newman et al. (2003).
Simultaneity of sensory input: Bahrick and Lickliter (2002); Bahrick and Lickliter (2000); Gogate and Bahrick (1998); and Hollich et al. (2005)
Acquisition of nouns and “closed class” words: Goodman et al. (2008).
Infant/parent verbal turn-taking predicts cognitive ability: Tamis-LeMonda and Bornstein (2002).
Motionese and word learning: Schwade et al. (2004).
Value of multiple speakers for word learning: Rost and McMurray (2008).
45% of utterances to a two-year-old begin with one of 17 words: Cameron-Faulkner et al. (2003).
Comparison of word acquisition in European and Korean languages: Bornstein et al. (2004).
Use of frames and variation sets: In a two-year-long study of children 14 to 30 months of age, by 30 months, those children whose parents had used more variation sets had more advanced language—both in the number of words they knew and the structure of their syntax. Fernald and Hurtado (2006); Bornstein et al. (1999); Waterfall (2009); and Waterfall (2006).
Shape bias: Author interviews with Samuelson and Smith; also Samuelson (2008); Samuelson and Horst (2004); Samuelson (2002); Samuelson (2000); Smith (2008); and Smith et al. (2002).
Growth of a child’s vocabulary: Goodman et al. (2008)
Conclusion
Scholars’ reassessment of the hedonic treadmill: Diener et al. (2006).
Effects of praise on adults: See, for example, McCausland et al. (2007) and Earley (1986).
Children’s orthogonal development of virtue and vice: Another example comes from Padilla-Walker—she’s seen that parents’ efforts to inculcate children with prosocial values impacts the children’s prosocial attitudes and behavior—but it doesn’t seem to change their antisocial behavior or attitudes. Padilla-Walker (2007) and Padilla-Walker and Carlo (2007).
Kids who know they like the taste of fruit don’t eat more apples: Unfortunately, we aren’t speaking hypothetically here. A team from the University of California, Los Angeles was hired to evaluate the efficacy of the Nutrition Network, a program 325 schools within the Los Angeles Unified School District were using in their classrooms to promote better eating habits. The researchers surveyed nearly a thousand third, fourth, and fifth graders. They found that almost all kids—in or out of the program—knew that fruit tastes good and that it’s good for them. (The kids also knew the benefits of vegetables—even if they didn’t like the taste.) But despite knowing that, the kids ate about one piece of fruit a day, and slightly less than one serving of vegetables. The scholars had wondered if the cost of fresh produce might be the obstacle to eating more, but less than one percent of students said their parents couldn’t afford fresh goods. Instead, the number one reason kids didn’t fulfill their daily requirement was that they simply wanted something else to eat. Prelip et al. (2006).
SELECTED SOURCES AND REFERENCES
In addition to the numerous interviews we conducted, the following is a list of significant research materials and conference presentations that directly informed the text.
Introduction
Bartels, Andreas, and Semir Zeki, “The Neural Correlates of Maternal and Romantic Love,” NeuroImage, vol. 21, no. 3, pp. 1155–1166 (2004).
Lorberbaum, Jeffrey P., John D. Newman, Amy R. Horwitz, Judy R. Dubno, R. Bruce Lydiard, Mark B. Hamner, Daryl E. Bohning, and Mark S. George, “A Potential Role for Thalamocingulate Circuitry in Human Maternal Behavior,” Biological Psychiatry, vol. 51, no. 6, pp. 431–445 (2002).
Noriuchi, Madoka, Yoshiaki Kikuchi, and Atsushi Senoo, “The Functional Neuroanatomy of Maternal Love: Mother’s Response to Infant’s Attachment Behaviors,” Biological Psychiatry, vol. 63, no. 4, pp. 415–423 (2008).
Swain, James E., Jeffrey P. Lorberbaum, Samet Kose, and Lane Strathearn, “Brain Basis of Early Parent-Infant Interactions: Psychology, Physiology, and In Vivo Functional Neuroimaging Studies,” Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, vol. 48, nos. 3–4, pp. 262–287 (2007).
Chapter 1, The Inverse Power of Praise
Ahuja, Anjana, “Forget Self-Esteem and Learn Some Humility,” The Times (London), p. A1 (May 17, 2005).
Anderson, D. Chris, Charles R. Crowell, Mark Doman, and George S. Howard, “Performance Posting, Goal Setting, and Activity-Contingent Praise as Applied to a University Hockey Team,” Journal of Applied Psychology, vol. 73, no. 1, pp. 87–95 (1988).
Baumeister, Roy F., Jennifer D. Campbell, Joachim I. Krueger, and Kathleen D. Vohs, “Does High Self-Esteem Cause Better Performance, Interpersonal Success, Happiness or Healthier Lifestyles?” Psychological Science in the Public Interest, vol. 4, no. 1, pp. 1–44 (2003).
Baumeister, Roy F., Jennifer D. Campbell, Joachim I. Krueger, and Kathleen D. Vohs, “Exploding the Self-Esteem Myth,” Scientific American, vol. 292, pp. 84–92 (2005).
Baumeister, Roy F., Debra G. Hutton, and Kenneth J. Cairns, “Negative Effects of Praise on Skilled Performance,” Basic and Applied Psychology, vol. 11, no. 2, pp. 131–148 (1990).
Blackwell, Lisa Sorich, Kali H. Trzesniewski, and Carol S. Dweck, “Implicit Theories of Intelligence Predict Achievement Across an Adolescent Transition: A Longitudinal Study and an Intervention,” Child Development, vol. 78, no. 1, pp. 246–263 (2007).
Campanella Bracken, Cheryl, Leo W. Jeffres, and Kimberly A. Neuendorf, “Criticism or Praise? The Impact of Verbal Versus Text-Only Computer Feedback on Social Presence, Intrinsic Motivation, and Recall,” CyberPsychology & Behavior, vol. 7, no. 3, pp. 349–357 (2004).
“Chat Wrap-Up: Student Motivation, What Works, What Doesn’t,” Education Week, vol. 26, no. 3, p. 38 (2006).
Cole, David A., Joan M. Martin, Lachlan A. Peeke, A. D. Seroczynski, and Jonathan Fier, “Children’s Over- and Underestimation of Academic Competence: A Longitudinal Study of Gender Difference, Depression and Anxiety,” Child Development, vol. 70, no. 2, pp. 459–473 (1999).
Crocker, Jennifer, Interview with Neal Conan, Talk of the Nation, National Public Radio. WashingtonDC (Aug. 3, 2005).
Dweck, Carol S., “Caution—Praise Can Be Dangerous,” American
Educator, vol. 23, no. 1, pp. 4–9 (1999).
Dweck, Carol S., Mindset. New York: Ballantine (2006).
Dweck, Carol S., “The Perils and Promise of Praise,” Educational Leadership, vol. 65, no. 2, pp. 34–39 (2007).
“Empty Praise: A Generation Ill-Prepared for Real World,” San Diego Union-Tribune, p. B.10.2 (2005).
Gusnard, Debra A., John M. Ollinger, Gordon L. Shulman, C. Robert Cloninger, Joseph L. Price, David C. Van Essen, and Marcus E. Raicule, “Persistence and Brain Circuitry,” Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, vol. 100, no. 6, pp. 3476–3484 (2003).
Hancock, Dawson R., “Influencing Graduate Students’ Classroom Achievement, Homework Habits and Motivation to Learn With Verbal Praise,” Educational Research, vol. 44, no. 1, pp. 83–95 (2002).
Henderlong, Jennifer, and Mark R. Lepper, “The Effects of Praise on Children’s Intrinsic Motivation: A Review and Synthesis,” Psychological Bulletin, vol. 128, no. 5, pp. 774–795 (2002).
Henderlong Corpus, Jennifer, and Mark R. Lepper, “The Effects of Person Versus Performance Praise on Children’s Motivation: Gender and Age as Moderating Factors,” Educational Psychology, vol. 27, no. 4, pp. 487–508 (2007).
Henderlong Corpus, Jennifer, Kelly E. Love, and Christin M. Ogle, “Social-Comparison Praise Undermines Intrinsic Motivation When Children Later Doubt Their Ability,” Paper and poster presented at Biennial Meeting, Society for Research in Child Development, Atlanta (2005).
Henderlong Corpus, Jennifer, Christin M. Ogle, and Kelly E. Love-Geiger, “The Effects of Social-Comparison Versus Mastery Praise on Children’s Intrinsic Motivation,” Motivation and Emotion, vol. 30, no. 4, pp. 335–345 (2006).
Izuma, Keise, Daisuke N. Saito, and Norihiro Sadato, “Processing of Social and Monetary Rewards in the Human Striatum,” Neuron, vol. 58, no. 2, pp. 284–294 (2008).
Kennedy Manzo, Kathleen, “Student Ambition Exceeds Academic Preparation,” Education Week, vol. 24, no. 30, p. 6 (2005).
Kutner, Lawrence, “Parents and Child,” New York Times (June 6, 1991), p. c.2.
Lepper, Mark R., David Greene, and Richard E. Nisbett, “Undermining Children’s Intrinsic Interest With Extrinsic Reward: A Test of the ‘Overjustification’ Hypothesis,” Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, vol. 28, no. 1, pp. 129–137 (1973).
May, J. Christopher, Mauricio R. Delgado, Ronald E. Dahl, V. Andrew Stenger, Neal D. Ryan, Julie A. Fiez, and Cameron S. Carter, “Event-Related Functional Magnetic Resonance Imaging of Reward-Related Brain Circuitry in Children and Adolescents,” Biological Psychiatry, vol. 55, no. 4, pp. 359–366 (2004).
McHoskey, John W., William Worzel, and Christopher Szyarto, “Machiavellianism and Psychopathy,” Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, vol. 74, no. 1, pp. 192–210 (1998).
Meyer, Wulf-Uwe, Rainer Reisenzein, and Oliver Dickhauser, “Inferring Ability From Blame: Effects of Effort Versus Liking-Oriented Cognitive Schemata,” Psychology Science, vol. 46, no. 2, pp. 281–293 (2004).
Mueller, Claudia M., and Carol S. Dweck, “Praise for Intelligence Can Undermine Children’s Motivation and Performance,” Journal for Personality and Social Psychology, vol. 75, no. 1, pp. 33–52 (1998).
Ng, Florrie Fei-Yin, Eva M. Pomerantz, and Shui-fong Lam, “European American and Chinese Parents’ Responses to Children’s Success and Failure: Implications for Children’s Response,” Developmental Psychology, vol. 43, no. 5, pp. 1239–1255 (2008).
Niiya, Yu, Jennifer Crocker, and Elizabeth N. Bartmess, “From Vulnerability to Resilience Learning Orientations Buffer Contingent Self-Esteem From Failure,” Psychological Science, vol. 15, no. 12, pp. 801–805 (2004).
Peikin, David, “Praising Children for Their Intelligence May Leave Them Ill-Equipped to Cope With Failure” [Press release], American Psychological Association, Washington DC (1998).
Phillips, Deborah, “The Illusion of Incompetence Among Academically Competent Children,” Child Development, vol. 55, no. 6, pp. 2000–2016 (1984).
Pomerantz, Eva M., Wendy S. Grolnick, and Carrie E. Price, “The Role of Parents in How Children Approach Achievement.” In: Andrew J. Elliot and Carol S. Dweck (Eds.), The Handbook of Competence and Motivation, pp. 259–278. New York: Guilford Press (2005).
Reynolds, John, Mike Stewart, Ryan MacDonald, and Lacey Sischo, “Have Adolescents Become Too Ambitious? U.S. High School Seniors’ Career Plans, 1976 to 2000,” Department of Sociology, Florida State University (2005).
Ryan, Richard M., and Edward L. Deci, “Self-Determination Theory and the Facilitation of Intrinsic Motivation, Social Development, and Well-Being,” American Psychologist, vol. 55, no. 1, pp. 68–78 (2000).
Strickler, Jane, “What Really Motivates People?” Journal for Quality and Participation, pp. 26–28 (2006).
Swanbrow, Diane, “Shame on Us: Shaming Some Kids Makes Them More Aggressive” [Press release], University of Michigan, Ann Arbor (2008).
Thomaes, Sander, Brad J. Bushman, Hedy Stegge, and Tjeert Olthof, “Trumping Shame by Blasts of Noise: Narcissism, Self-Esteem, Shame, and Aggression in Young Adolescents,” Child Development, vol. 79, no. 6, pp. 1792–1801 (2008).
Wagner, Barry M., and Deborah A. Phillips, “Beyond Beliefs: Parent and Child Behaviors and Children’s Perceived Academic Competence,” Child Development, vol. 63, no. 6, pp. 1380–1391 (1992).
Webster, Robert L., and Harry A. Harmon, “Comparing Levels of Machiavellianism of Today’s College Students With College Students of the 1960s,” Teaching Business Ethics, vol. 6, no. 4, pp. 435–445 (2002).
Willingham, Daniel T., “How Praise Can Motivate—or Stifle,” American Educator, vol. 29, no. 4, pp. 23–27, (2005–2006).
Chapter 2, The Lost Hour
Acebo, Christine, Avi Sadeh, Ronald Seifer, Orna Tzischinsky, Abigail Hafer, and Mary A. Carskadon, “Sleep/Wake Patterns Derived From Activity Monitoring and Maternal Report for Healthy 1- to 5-Year-Old Children,” Sleep, vol. 28, no. 12, pp. 1568–1577 (2005).
Anderson, Patricia M., and Kristin F. Bucher, “Childhood Obesity: Trends and Potential Causes,” Future of Children, vol. 16, no. 1, pp. 19–45 (2006).
Arcia, Emily, Peter A. Ornstein, and David A. Otto, “Neurobehavioral Evaluation System (NES) and School Performance,” Journal of School Psychology, vol. 29, no. 4, pp. 337–352 (1991).
Arcuri, Jim, “AASM to School-Bound: Sleep Is the Right Ingredient for Academic Success” [Press release], American Academy of Sleep Medicine, Westchester, IL (2007).
Arcuri, Jim, “Children With Sleep Disorders Symptoms Are More Likely to Have Trouble Academically” [Press release], Associated Professional Sleep Societies, LLC, Westchester, IL (2007).
Arcuri, Jim, “Sleep Deprivation Can Lead to Smoking, Drinking” [Press release], Associated Professional Sleep Societies, LLC, Westchester, IL (2007).
Bachmann, Alissa, and Erin Ax, “The Relationship Between the Prevalence of Sleep Disorders Symptoms and Academic Performance in Lower Elementary School Students,” Journal of Sleep and Sleep Disorders Research, vol. 30, 2007 Abstract Supplement, p. A99 (2007).
Backhaus, Jutta, Ralf Hoeckesfeld, Jan Born, Fritz Hohagen, and Klaus Junghanns, “Immediate as Well as Delayed Post Learning Sleep but Not Wakefulness Enhances Declarative Memory Consolidation in Children,” Neurobiology of Learning and Memory, vol. 89, no. 1, pp. 76–80 (2008).
Bartolic, Silvia K., Sook-Jung Lee, and Elizabeth A. Vandewater, “Relating Activity Involvements to Child Weight Status: Do Normal and Overweight Children Differ in How They Spend Their Time?,” Paper presented at the Population Association of America Annual Meeting, New York (2007).
Bass, Joseph, and Fred W. Turek, “Sleepless in America,” Archives of Internal Medicine, vol. 165, no. 1, pp. 15–16 (2005).
Beebe, D. W., D. Rose, and R. Amin, “Effect of Chronic Sleep Restriction on an Adolescents’ Learning and Brain Activity in a Simulated Classroom: A Pilot Study,” Journal of Sleep and Sleep Disorders Research, vol. 31, 2008 Abstract Supplement, p. A77 (2008).
Biddle, Stuart J. H., “Sedentary Behavior,” American Journal of Preventive Medicine, vol. 33, no. 6, pp. 502–504 (2007).
Biddle, Stuart J. H., Trish Gorely, Simon J. Marshall, and Noel Cameron, “The Prevalence of Sedentary Behavior and Physical Activity in Leisure Time: A Study of Scottish Adolescents Using Ecological Momentary Assessment,” Preventive Medicine, vol. 48, no. 2, pp. 151–155 (2009).
Bogan, Lisa, Louise Herot, Amy Harris Hoermann, Catharine Kempson, Helen Martin, Janice Whitney, and Carole Young-Kleinfield, “School Start Time Study Report,” League of Women’s Voters, Wilton, CT (2002).
Born, Jan, “Sleep Enforces the Temporal Sequence in Memory” [Press release], Public Library of Science, University of Lübeck, Germany (2007).
Brandt, Michelle, “Stanford Study Links Obesity to Hormonal Changes From Lack of Sleep” [Press release], Stanford University, Stanford, CA (2004).
Burtanger, Donna, “Practice Makes Perfect, if You Sleep on It” [Press release], Harvard University, Cambridge, MA (2002).
Cappuccio, Francesco P., Frances M. Taggart, Ngianga-Bakwin Kandala, Andrew Currie, Ed Peile, Saverio Stranges, and Michelle A. Miller, “Meta-analysis of Short Sleep Duration and Obesity in Children and Adults,” Sleep, vol. 31, no. 5, pp. 619–626 (2008).
Carins, A., J. Harsh, and M. LeBourgeois, “Napping in Children Is Related to Later Sleep Phase,” Journal of Sleep and Sleep Disorders Research, vol. 30, 2007 Abstract Supplement, p. A100 (2007).
Chaput, J-P., M. Brunet, and A. Tremblay, “Relationship Between Short Sleeping Hours and Childhood Overweight/Obesity: Results From the ‘Québec en Forme’ Project,” International Journal of Obesity, vol. 30, no. 7, pp. 1080–1085 (2006).
Chen, Xiaoli, May A. Beydoun, and Youfa Wang, “Is Sleep Duration Associated With Childhood Obesity? A Systematic Review and Meta-analysis,” Obesity, vol. 16, no. 2, pp. 265–274 (2008).
Chervin, Ronald D., Kristen Hedger Archbold, James E. Dillon, Parviz Panahi, Kenneth J. Pituch, Ronald E. Dahl, and Christian Guilleminault, “Inattention, Hyperactivity, and Symptoms of Sleep-Disordered Breathing,” Pediatrics, vol. 109, no. 3, pp. 449–456 (2002).
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