55. Curaçao: Klooster, Illicit Riches, 41, 64, 73–74.
56. Port Royal became: Lane, Pillaging the Empire, 103–9, 169.
57. “No private offense”: Treaty of Madrid, §14, in Davenport, European Treaties, 2:195–96.
58. Treaty of Whitehall: Lane, Pillaging the Empire, 125–27; Davenport, European Treaties, 2:321–22, 363.
59. “to seeke out”: In Morison, European Discovery of America, 159.
60. “that the sea is covered”: Raimondo di Soncino, Dec. 18, 1497, in Hoffman, Cabot to Cartier, 11.
61. Dried, salted, or pickled fish: Fagan, Fish on Friday, 54–55. See Unger, “Netherlands Herring Fishery,” “Dutch Herring, Technology, and International Trade”; and Kowaleski, “Commercialization of the Sea Fisheries.”
62. fishing ships at St. John’s: Morison, European Discovery of America, 235.
63. Port Royal (now Annapolis Royal): Morison, Samuel de Champlain, 71–77.
64. Company of New France: Successor to the Compagnie des Marchands and Compagnie de Montmorency, the Company of New France was formally known as the Compagnie des Cent-Associés (Company of One Hundred Associates).
65. “the land of Louisiana”: In Murat, Colbert, 240. La Salle named the Illinois River for Colbert’s son and successor as minister of the marine, Seignelay.
66. A northbound flatboat: Surrey, Commerce of Louisiana, 58–74.
67. “Also we might inhabite”: Gilbert, Discourse of a Discouerie for a New Passage to Cataia, in Quinn, Voyages and Colonising Enterprises, 1:160–61.
68. “no mynes discouered”: “Davies Journal of the 1607 North Virginia Voyage,” in Quinn and Quinn, English New England Voyages, 415.
69. indent themselves: Bergquist, “Paradox of American Development,” 158–59.
70. The first slaves were landed: Heywood and Thornton, Central Africans, Atlantic Creoles, 27–28.
71. “To think of discovering”: In Johnson, Charting the Sea of Darkness, 87.
72. “And of all the foure parts”: Smith, Description of New England, 6.
73. Tisquantum (or Squanto): Humins, “Squanto and Massasoit,” 58–59.
74. Great Migration: Horn and Morgan, “Settlers and Slaves,” 24; Games, “Migration,” 38–42.
75. astonishing safety record: Cressy, “Vast and Furious Ocean,” 516. The one loss Cressy notes, the Angel Gabriel, was lost in a hurricane in 1635 while at anchor off Pemaquid, Maine, after completing her passage. See Riess, Angel Gabriel, 44–46.
76. “set our people on work”: Winthrop, Journal of John Winthrop, June–August 1641, 353.
77. cost of transporting: Rodger, Command of the Ocean, 192.
78. “containing important inducements”: M. Edward Hayes, “A Treatise, conteining important inducements for the planting in these parts, and finding a passage that way to the South sea and China” (1602), in Quinn and Quinn, English New England Voyages, 176.
79. “There is also the very good news”: Pepys, Diary, Dec. 3, 1666 (vol. 7:397). On comparison with oil, see Albion, Forests and Sea Power, xi, 164. Albion was writing in 1926, when oil consumption was a fraction of what it is nine decades later.
80. from the Carolinas: Malone, Pine Trees and Politics, 24, 33–36.
81. place of refuge: Lane, Pillaging the Empire, 168.
82. new merchant centers: Morison et al., Concise History of the American Republic, 34–35.
83. Count-Duke Olivares: Stradling, Armada of Flanders, 60–62.
84. frigates stationed at Dunkirk: Glete, Navies and Nations, 1:61; Thrush, “In Pursuit of the Frigate.”
85. “from now on”: In Stradling, Armada of Flanders, 54; also 46–47, 58, 75.
86. Admiralty of the North: Almirantazgo de los Países Septentrionales, in Stradling, Armada of Flanders, 42; James, “Development of French Naval Policy,” 386.
87. sweeping protectionist measures: O’Connell, Richelieu, 145.
88. La Rochelle fell: Burckhardt, Richelieu, 1:244–79.
89. France had no national navy: Ibid., 2:41; James, “Development of French Naval Policy,” 387–88.
90. “true citadels of the sea”: Burckhardt, Richelieu, 2:29–30.
91. battle of Guetaría: Stradling, Armada of Flanders, 104–8; Glete, Warfare at Sea, 181–82.
92. “the ignominy of seeing our king”: Burckhardt, Richelieu, 2:32.
93. “Such a rotten, miserable fleet”: J. Ashburnham to E. Nicholas, Oct. 26, 1627, in Rodger, Safeguard of the Sea, 363.
94. “ship money”: Sharpe, Personal Rule of Charles I, 554–55; Cust, Charles I, 191; and Rodger, Safeguard of the Sea, 381–82.
95. “his princely resolution”: Pett, Autobiography, 156.
96. “the art or wit of man”: In Heywood, His Majesty’s Royal Ship, xiv.
97. “Decorements whiche beautify”: Ibid., xxx.
98. battle of the Downs: Rodger, Safeguard of the Sea, 413.
99. the organization of which: Bruijn, Dutch Navy, 5–11, 145–46.
100. “only in such [ships]”: In Aughterson, The English Renaissance, 554.
101. “In the Prow”: Evelyn, Diary, Apr. 1, 1655 (vol. 3:149–50).
102. line of battle: Rodger, Command of the Ocean, 17; Anglo-Dutch War: ibid., 14–18.
103. “the greatest [admiral]”: In Rodger, Command of the Ocean, 85.
104. “the Dutch did take her”: Pepys, Diary, June 22, 1667 (vol. 8:283).
105. “A very good town”: Charles to Henriette Anne, in Fraser, Royal Charles, 232.
106. “In this city of Amsterdam”: In Hart, “Intercity Rivalries,” 196.
107. the French doubled customs tariffs: Murat, Colbert, 148.
108. program of internal improvements: Ibid., 159–60.
109. subsidized Charles II: Ibid., 208.
110. merchants of neutral England: Rodger, Command of the Ocean, 86.
111. “the final administrative recognition”: Ibid., 220.
112. ship of the line: Lavery, The Ship of the Line.
113. guns were fired: Rodger, Command of the Ocean, 74, 540.
114. Fighting Instructions: Benjamin and Tifrea, “Learning by Dying,” 987.
17. Northern Europe Ascendant
1. an apparently straightforward mission: Walter, Voyage Round the World.
2. “soldiers, who from their age”: Anson, Voyage Round the World, 23.
3. “muster no more than two”: Ibid., 102.
4. Despite the loss: Williams, Prize of All the Oceans, 202.
5. entitled to a share: Ibid., 217–18. For a fuller account of the prize system, see Petrie, Prize Game.
6. “It is an observation”: Lind, An Essay on the Most Effectual Means of Preserving the Health of Seamen (1779), in Rodger, Command of the Ocean, 281; Baugh, The Global Seven Years War, 429–31.
7. Quiberon Bay: Baugh, The Global Seven Years War, 436–43.
8. ship fever: Duffy, “Passage to the Colonies,” 23.
9. forced to subsist: Lloyd, “Victualling of the Fleet,” 10.
10. “I began to allow”: In Strachan, East India Company Journals, Apr. 7, 1614 (p. 69).
11. James Lind: Rodger, Command of the Ocean, 307–8; Bartholomew, “James Lind and Scurvy”; and Duffy, “Passage to the Colonies,” 31, 38.
12. “The water and the wine”: In Boxer, Dutch Seaborne Empire, 74.
13. normally needs: Pérez-Mallaína, Spain’s Men of the Sea, 144.
14. Parliament awarded: Gratzer, Terrors of the Table, 24.
15. one gallon of beer per day: Lloyd, “Victualling of the Fleet,” 10.
16. “we dranke the last Beere”: In Sail Training Assoc. of Western Australia, Duyfken 1606.
17. “every day mixed”: Pack, Nelson’s Blood, 22–23.
18. “Slavery itself”: Fox to the House of Commons, June 10, 1806, in Thomas, Slave Trade, 493.
19. fifteen autobiographical accounts: Handler, “Survivors of the Middle Passage,” 25–30.
20. Olauduh Equia
no: Ibid., 50–51n10. Equiano was employed for several years by Charles Irving and helped in his experiments with distilling water.
21. “During the voyages I made”: Falconbridge, Account of the Slave Trade, 24–25.
22. space allotted to each slave: Garland and Klein, “Allotment of Space,” 240–41.
23. opposition from traders: LoGerfo, “Sir William Dolben,” 450.
24. “to harden the feelings”: Falconbridge, Account of the Slave Trade, 46.
25. “The ship voyage”: Christopher Sauer, letter of Aug. 1, 1725, in Wokeck, Trade in Strangers, 132.
26. “the sad and miserable condition”: Mittelberger, Journey to Pennsylvania, 12.
27. 2.7 million were Europeans: Horn and Morgan, “Settlers and Slaves,” 20.
28. “better acquainted”: Narborough’s journal, in Rodger, Command of the Ocean, 82.
29. inadequate for a prolonged naval war: Pilgrim, “Colbert-Seignelay Naval Reforms.”
30. “inferior sailors”: Falconer, Universal Dictionary of the Marine, s.v. “ordinary.”
31. “The fighting part”: Russell, National Maritime Museum mss., SOU/13, in Aubrey, Defeat of James Stuart’s Armada, 84.
32. naval bases, shipyards, and port facilities: Glete, Navies and Nations, 187–88; Murat, Colbert, 237; Rodger, Command of the Ocean, 105–6; and Kennedy, Rise and Fall of British Naval Mastery, 65–66.
33. Bank of England: Brewer, Sinews of Power, 42, 133 (“Dutch finance”); Padfield, Maritime Supremacy, 194–96; and Rodger, Command of the Ocean, 198–99.
34. most powerful navy in the world: Rodger, Command of the Ocean, 234; Harding, The Emergence of Britain’s Naval Supremacy, 39–46.
35. capture of Portobelo: Harding, The Emergence of Britain’s Naval Supremacy, 68.
36. hard-won lessons: Ibid., 341–48.
37. fought in the Indian Ocean: Baugh, The Global Seven Years War, 462–83; Louisbourg: 338–48; all Canada: 404–20, 483–92.
38. “If we lose our sugar islands”: George III to Sandwich, Sept. 13, 1779, in Padfield, Maritime Supremacy, 250.
39. merchants and cod fishermen: Magra, The Fisherman’s Cause, 130–32.
40. American shipwrights launched: Davis, Rise of the English Shipping Industry, 67–68.
41. enumerated goods: Nester, Great Frontier War, 76.
42. “I tell the Noble Lord”: William Dowdeswell, in Labaree, Boston Tea Party, 71.
43. Intolerable (or Coercive) Acts: Leamon, Revolution Downeast, 50–51.
44. “carrying on any Fishery”: In Magra, The Fisherman’s Cause, 149.
45. expedition to Penobscot Bay: Leamon, Revolution Downeast, 107–19.
46. British privateers: Klooster, Illicit Riches, 96.
47. driving down Lake Champlain: Hagan, This People’s Navy, 6–9.
48. the rebels might win: Dull, The French Navy and American Independence, 89–91.
49. battle of the Virginia Capes: Ibid., 239–49.
50. Cape Colony: The VOC had established a provisioning station for their ships at Cape Town, South Africa, at the start of the First Anglo-Dutch War in the seventeenth century. The initial inhabitants were VOC employees, whose numbers were augmented by Malagasy slaves and Dutch and French Huguenot settlers. Thompson, History of South Africa, 31–45.
51. “The good Dutchmen”: In Mahan, Influence of Sea Power, 465.
52. The French Revolutionary and Napoleonic Wars: Rodger, Command of the Ocean, 427–30, 436.
53. “Exceeding hard Gales”: Knight, The Pursuit of Victory, 272.
54. “Was I to die”: Nelson to Earl Spencer, first lord of the admiralty, in Coleman, The Nelson Touch, 154.
55. Aboukir: Knight, The Pursuit of Victory, 288–98; Coleman, The Nelson Touch, 156–60.
56. attack on Copenhagen: Knight, The Pursuit of Victory, 371–84; Coleman, The Nelson Touch, 251–58. The story that the one-eyed Nelson ignored Parker’s signal with the remark “I have a right to be blind sometimes” is apocryphal.
57. to keep the British from massing: Knight, The Pursuit of Victory, 480.
58. signal flags: Schom, Trafalgar, 311; Knight, The Pursuit of Victory, 511.
59. “The whole impression”: In Schom, Trafalgar, 292; Knight, The Pursuit of Victory, 505–8.
60. “England expects”: In Knight, The Pursuit of Victory, 514; Schom, Trafalgar, 320.
61. combined casualties: Rodger, Wooden World, 56–59; Knight, The Pursuit of Victory, 521.
62. “for failing to do”: In Rodger, Command of the Ocean, 267; Baugh, The Global Seven Years War, 229–35. Byng’s politically motivated execution made an inviting target for Voltaire, who in Candide explains that in England, “it is a good thing to kill an admiral from time to time to encourage the others.”
63. stronghold of Azov: Phillips, Founding of Russia’s Navy, 37–44.
64. yearlong tour: Ryan, “Peter the Great and English Maritime Technology,” 138–39; Hughes, Peter the Great, 44–48, 52, 65–66, 75.
65. Naval Statute of 1720: Hughes, Peter the Great, 141.
66. where Peter founded St. Petersburg: Israel, Dutch Primacy, 43.
67. battle of Hangö: Phillips, Founding of Russia’s Navy, 123–24, 200; Woodward, Russians at Sea, 22–25. The galleys, called skampavei, were eighteen meters long.
68. “This savage, cruel, and barbarous people”: Count Gyllenborg, in Warner, “British Merchants and Russian Men of War,” 109.
69. “seducing artificers”: An Act to Prevent the Inconveniencies Arising from Seducing Artificers in the Manufactures of Great Britain into Foreign Parts, 1718, 5 Geo. 1, c. 26.
70. Treaty of Nystad: Hughes, Peter the Great, 158–59.
71. Bay of Chesma: Madariaga, Catherine the Great, 45.
72. commerce was disrupted: King, Black Sea, 156.
73. Treaty of Adrianople (Edirne): Esmer, “Straits,” 292; King, Black Sea, 162.
74. diwan (treasurer): Ray, “Indian Society and British Supremacy,” 511.
75. imports to Europe: Habib, “Eighteenth Century in Indian Economic History,” 227.
76. exports from Bengal: Prakash, “Trade and Politics,” 228, 248.
77. Chinese tea: Zhuang, “Impact of the International Tea Trade,” 196–97.
78. between 79 and 127 percent: Keay, Honourable Company, 391.
79. Canton system: Hsü, Rise of Modern China, 150–54.
80. “merchants without empire”: Wang, “Merchants Without Empire.”
81. “the commerce between China and Borneo”: Forrest, Voyage to New Guinea, 381.
82. a thousand seagoing junks: Marshall, “Introduction,” 25.
83. Chinese settlers: Blussé, “Chinese Century,” 113–29.
84. Stamford Raffles: Lee, Singapore, 5–8.
85. pepper from Sumatra: Morison, Maritime History of Massachusetts, 91.
86. the Dutch hired ships: Blussé, Visible Cities, 92.
87. Semyon Dezhnev: Haycox, Alaska, 44–46; Frost, Bering, 50–51.
88. fur rush: Miller, “Maritime Fur Trade Rivalry,” 395, 401. The monopoly was for the region north of 55°N.
89. “to discover the partly known”: In Paine, Ships of the World, s.v. Heemskerck, citing J. E. Heeres, ed., Abel Janszoon Tasman’s Journal (Amsterdam, 1898) and Andrew Sharp, The Voyages of Abel Janszoon Tasman (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1968).
90. “the advancement”: Instructions of June 17, 1764, in Hawkesworth, An Account of the Voyages, 1:7.
91. “Land or Islands”: Byron’s Journal of His Circumnavigation, lix, note 1.
92. “examine the soils”: Memoir from the King to Serve as Instructions to Mr de Bougainville, in Bougainville, Pacific Journal, xlv.
93. “the state of natural man”: Philibert Commerson, “Post-Scriptum sur l’île de la Nouvelle-Cythère,” in Bougainville, Pacific Journal, lvi.
94. “noble savage”: Smith, European Vision and the South Pacific, 41–51.
95. “the improvement of astronomy�
��: Feb. 15, 1768, Memorials of the Royal Society, in Cook, Journals, vol. 1, Voyage of the Endeavour, 604.
96. “No people ever went to sea”: John Ellis to Linnaeus, in O’Brian, Joseph Banks, 65; specimens: 169–71.
97. “the great quantity of New Plants”: Cook, May 6, 1770, Journals, vol. 1, Voyage of the Endeavour, 247.
98. heavily silted river: Blussé, Visible Cities, 43.
99. Cook’s strict regimen: Beaglehole, Exploration of the Pacific, 284.
100. European interest in the Pacific Northwest: Olsen, Through Spanish Eyes, 6–10; Miller, “Maritime Fur Trade Rivalry,” 396–97.
101. “In justice to Behrings Memory”: Sept. 4, 1778, Voyage of the Resolution and Discovery, 433.
102. “an asylum”: Matra, “A Proposal for Establishing a Settlement in New South Wales,” in Hoffman, “Australia’s Debt,” 151.
103. well positioned to threaten: Frost, “James Mario Matra.”
104. “We got into Port Jackson”: Phillip to Lord Sydney, May 15, 1788, in Hoffman, “Australia’s Debt,” 156.
105. thirty-five or forty days: Walton, “Sources of Productivity Change,” 73. There were exceptions. In his pursuit of Villeneuve, Nelson’s fleet of thirteen ships maintained an average speed of almost six knots over fifteen days; Knight, The Pursuit of Victory, 489.
106. Mathematicians, physicists, and others: Ferreiro, Ships and Science, 96, 282.
107. “Virginia-built”: Chapelle, History of American Sailing Ships, 222.
108. extra crew: Walton, “Sources of Productivity Change,” 69–70; Jamaica ships: 71–72; turnaround times: 76–77; insurance: 71. See Shepherd and Walton, Shipping, Maritime Trade and the Economic Development, 49–72.
109. “for such Person”: Taylor, Haven-Finding Art, 253.
110. financial incentive: Turner, “In the Wake of the Act,” 122.
111. lunar distances: Howse, “The Lunar-Distance Method of Measuring Longitude,” 150–61.
112. John Harrison: King, “ ‘John Harrison, Clockmaker at Barrow,’ ” 168–87; Andrewes, “Even Newton Could Be Wrong,” 190–233.
113. he completed work on H4: Randall, “The Timekeeper That Won the Longitude Prize,” 236–54.
114. “Mr Kendal’s Watch”: Cook to the Admiralty Secretary, Mar. 22, 1775, in Journals, vol. 2, Voyage of the Resolution and Adventure, 50.
115. Gerard Mercator: Koeman et al., “Commercial Cartography and Map Production in the Low Countries,” 1323–28.
The Sea and Civilization: A Maritime History of the World Page 92
