MANSA
MUSA
AND THE
EMPIRE OF MALI
P. JAMES OLIVER
The design on the cover of this book features Mali’s famous mud architecture. In the 1300s, Mansa Musa and his friend As-Sāhilī revolutionized architecture in Mali and across the rest of the Sudan by introducing the use of sun-dried mud bricks and a style that became known as the Malian style of architecture. The skyline on the cover is a collage of mud brick structures dating from the 1300s to the present.
Copyright © 2013 P. James Oliver
All rights reserved.
ISBN-10: 146805354X
EAN-13: 9781468053548
TABLE OF CONTENTS
Preface
A Journey
Ebony, Ivory and the Law
Banishing the Bandits
Sandals and Horses and Things: A Reality-Based Imaginary Day
An Ounce of Gold for an Ounce of Salt
9,000 Miles
A Delight
A Perilous Expanse
A Lasting Impression
“We Made It – Praise Be To Allah”
The Hajj
A Vast “Golden Land”
An Arduous Journey
A Great Acquisition
Welcome Home
Mali’s Golden Age
Not By Gold Alone
Epilogue
Glossary
Author’s Note
Acknowledgements
Notes
Bibliography
PREFACE
SOUTH OF THE SAHARA DESERT, long before the first Europeans arrived, three great empires existed in West Africa. One after another, these powerful merchant empires, rich in gold and skilled in commerce, prospered in relative isolation for hundreds of years.
Separated from the rest of the world by the vastness of the Sahara Desert and a coastline sailors had not yet learned to navigate, only a sparse network of trade routes connected these great black African empires with their markets in the old world.
Ghana, the first of the three empires, began in 700 A.D., as Europe lay deeply mired in the Dark Ages and Islam virtually exploded across North Africa, Europe and Asia. Much more slowly, Islam made its way to West Africa. Adopted primarily by prominent urban families, Islam stimulated Ghana’s already vigorous gold trade. In 1312, as the Crusades ended and the Spice Trade which was to create such a huge demand for gold began, Kankan Musa became the Emperor of Mali, the second of the three empires.
From the pyramids to the Mona Lisa, from the Iliad to the Great Wall of China, the achievements of the world’s greatest civilizations are wonderfully diverse. Stable, prosperous, powerful, long-lived, West Africa’s merchant empires rank among the world’s finest civilizations. Within each of them, exceptional individuals lifted their culture to greatness. Kankan Musa—Renaissance man, emperor and traveler—was such a person.
A JOURNEY
KANKAN MUSA AND HIS UNCLE STOOD QUIETLY on the beach watching as more than one hundred men loaded the many ships. Large mounds of food, gold and gear were piled on the beach to outfit the small vessels. Though the men were excited about the upcoming voyage, they worked slowly and with extraordinary care. Each of the two thousand ships needed enough supplies to sustain the crew in case they became separated from the others, yet it was imperative they not be overloaded. Every strip of dried meat, each coil of rope, could mean the difference between survival and despair.
The arrow shows the area they set sail from.
The year was 1312. Kankan’s uncle, the Emperor of Mali, was about to embark on an exciting expedition. Though he was the ruler of a powerful empire, his passion was exploration. For years he had longed to know what, if anything, lay on the other side of the Western Ocean. A few years earlier, he had equipped 400 ships and instructed his captains not to return until they had run out of food or had reached the end of the ocean. A long time passed, and then one ship returned. In a state of great excitement, Kankan’s uncle asked the captain what news he brought. “Your Majesty,” the captain reported, “we traveled for a long time until there appeared in the open sea what seemed to be a river with a powerful current. My ship was last. The other ships went on ahead, but they did not return and we did not see them again. So, I turned about and did not enter that river.” The emperor did not believe his captain’s story and became vehement about trying again.1
Now, with his plans nearly complete, Kankan’s uncle looked about with pleasure. He would be leading this expedition himself ! He’d done some sailing before, but like most men of his day, he had always stayed within sight of the land. His dream was to sail straight out to sea, straight toward the place where the summer sun set. He didn’t know if he would find land or if the ocean just went on forever. His journey could bring him fortune and fame, or he could be leading his ships to their doom, falling one after another off the edge of the world.
All he knew for sure was that such a voyage would be dangerous. Turning to Kankan, he said, “Nephew, son of my sister, in accordance with our people’s customs, if I do not return from this voyage, you will become the next Emperor of Mali. If this should occur . . .”
Kankan’s uncle never returned. Some historical records indicate that he, or at least some of the men who sailed with him, did, in fact, reach the Americas long before Christopher Columbus arrived in 1492.2
Chapter 2
EBONY, IVORY AND THE LAW
SOON AFTER HIS UNCLE SET SAIL, Kankan and his wives and children moved into Mali’s royal palace. Built around an immense courtyard in Niani, Mali’s capital, the palace was a large, sprawling complex that served as both the emperor’s home and the headquarters of Mali’s government. In addition to the luxurious rooms Kankan’s family enjoyed, the palace boasted many meeting areas and offices, guest rooms and servants’ quarters, a well-equipped stable, and a cooking area large enough to feed several thousand people.
The emperor’s throne, beautifully crafted from hard black ebony, sat on a rectangular platform at one end of the courtyard. Here the empire’s business was conducted, its history recited, and its ceremonies performed. This was the heart of Mali. Two huge, gleaming ivory tusks stood beside the throne, one on each side, like sentinels standing guard. Behind the throne, whenever the emperor was present, a row of handsomely-dressed pages stood expectantly in a straight line. A servant held a large silk umbrella above the emperor’s head, shading him from the sun. Other servants fanned him when the day was hot. A herald stood in front of him, repeating his words in a loud voice so everyone present could hear. Off to one side, a row of horses waited quietly in case the emperor should wish to ride.
When the royal court was in session, crowds gathered in front of the platform to watch and listen. Seated upon the throne, the emperor gave orders, listened to reports from his governors and military advisers, settled disputes, and ruled on questions of law. Though Kankan Musa first served as a temporary leader in his uncle’s absence, in time he was officially recognized as Mali’s new emperor. From then on he was called Mansa Kankan Musa, Mansa Musa, or simply “the Mansa,” which means “the emperor.”
Chapter 3
BANISHING THE BANDITS
MANSA KANKAN MUSA HAD PLANS! Now that he was emperor, he planned to strengthen the army, conquer more lands, and increase the empire’s power and wealth. He wanted to get rid of the bandits who roamed across Mali’s countryside, frightening travelers and hindering trade. He also hoped to bring people to Allah (the Arabic word for God) and peace to the land.
Perhaps his greatest challenge, however, would be the isolation his new position would bring. As Mali’s emperor, he could not have any close friends. All his former frien
ds would have to be treated equally, and somewhat impersonally, so that none of them, or their families, would feel they had more power or influence with the emperor than anyone else. Just the appearance of favoritism could lead to fighting between the powerful families of Mali, and even to the assassination or overthrow of the emperor himself.
Like every emperor of Mali, Mansa Musa would have a dyeli who would serve as his counselor and friend, official mouthpiece or herald, and master of ceremonies at court functions and festivals. His dyeli would recite the Epic of Old Mali in public and compose the portion of the epic that would record the events of Mansa Musa’s reign. As the “writer” of Mali’s history, dyelis were feared and sometimes even despised because, though they could praise, they could also criticize. In addition to their other duties, dyelis were trained in constitutional procedures and were used to settle disputes arising between clans and tribes. Their role was both sensitive and important. To help assure their reliability, dyelis were chosen, in part, because of their low social status. This meant they would be dependent upon “their” emperor and would not have any kinsmen among the nobility or the freemen who might try to influence them or make a claim to the throne. Only with his dyeli would the Mansa be able to speak freely, get angry, or seek advice.
Well prepared, Mansa Musa handled the demands of his new position exceptionally well. People liked him. They felt he was fair. His superb administrative skills were apparent to all who worked under him, and his reputation as a great military leader grew with each campaign. His wisdom was reflected in every decree he made—and even in some he reversed.
For example, early in his reign, in an effort to convert people to Islam*, he ordered the gold miners in the South to stop practicing their pagan customs and to adopt the Muslim** way of life. The miners, unwilling to give up their old customs, became so angry they protested his orders by drastically reducing their production of gold.
Stories tell of one especially memorable nugget that was so big an emperor used it to tether his horse.
Every nugget of gold the mines produced went straight into the empire’s treasury—the miners were only allowed to keep the gold dust and flakes. The angry miners were well aware that if they severely limited their production, the flow of gold into the empire’s treasury would be dramatically reduced and sorely missed.
Instead of sending troops to force the miners to obey his wishes, Mansa Musa decided to allow the miners to return to their old ways. The miners, who understood their position as a subject people, as well as the value of their labor to the empire’s financial health, went back to work. Thus a difficult and costly war was avoided, and Mali’s people learned that the Mansa was wise enough and brave enough to publicly change his mind when it was in the empire’s best interest.
The miners were skilled jungle fighters.
Mansa Musa’s most important victory was over the bandits who roamed the countryside. For years these bandits had crippled travel and trade. As emperor, he refused to tolerate roadside robbery and the bandits met with swift and certain punishment. Once the bandits were gone, trade flourished and Mali’s marketplaces became filled with wonderful and exotic products from distant lands. Along with their merchandise, the traders brought news of the world, thrilling stories of adventure, and tales of strange and faraway places.
For the people of Mali, life was good. They lived in peace, food was plentiful, they felt free to travel, and their marketplaces were both exciting and prosperous.
Chapter 4
SANDALS AND HORSES AND THINGS: A REALITY-BASED IMAGINARY DAY
Market Day was a day to look forward to—an out-of-the-ordinary, who-knows-what-might-happen sort of day, a get-up-early, how-do-I-look, news-and-gossip, let’s-get-going kind of day.
EAGER TO GET AN EARLY START on this important day, people entered Niani’s marketplace just as the sun began to color the eastern sky. The traders, always among the first to arrive, visited with each other while they set out their goods. Local farmers and craftsmen, who also liked to come early, arrived from every direction and proudly, hopefully, displayed their goods. Soon, the first cheerful notes of the musicians could be heard. Then crowds of men, women and children filled the marketplace with noise and excitement. They came for supplies, a special something, or just to have a good time. It seemed like everyone in and around Niani was somehow involved.
One such person, a young sandal maker who lived in a small village just outside Niani, left his house a little before dawn with a load of sandals on his back and dreams of great trades in his head. All morning long he called out with gusto, “See how well these sandals are made. The leather is soft and smooth, yet very strong.” By noon he had already traded seven pair for rice, millet, honey, dates, a few small tools and a handsome length of cotton woven by a friend of his. Later he traded three pair to a trader for gold, and another two pair, one to a potter and one to a dyer, for salt. Before the day ended, he exchanged the salt and gold (both of which were used as we use money) for enough leather to make another load of sandals.
As well as making good trades, the young sandal maker loved the excitement of an important market day. There were goods from as far away as China, India and Spain to see and touch and taste. Hundreds of people crowded into the marketplace: traders, farmers, craftsmen, hunters, entertainers, and ordinary people in search of supplies. The resulting swirl of colors, sounds, and drifting odors excited him. He liked to hear the traders’ stories, watch the jugglers and dancers perform, and listen to the musicians play. In addition to all this, the chance to see his friends and catch up on what was going on in the city made the day wonderfully eventful.
As he walked home that evening, he felt proud that already he could hold his own during the tough bargaining that led to a good trade. He was also proud of the supplies his work had earned for himself and his family. In the distance, he watched a caravan of traders as they filed along a dusty trail. He imagined that they, too, had had a good day. If so, many of their packs were probably full of gold and ivory, beautifully tanned leather, lengths of cotton cloth and the kola nuts so many Arabs liked to chew. When the traders disappeared from view, he watched the birds and felt content.
In the 1300s, kola nuts were highly prized for their ability to relieve thirst. By the late 1900s, they were found around the world as an ingredient in Coca-Cola.3
While his people were busy trading in Niani’s marketplace, the Mansa was busy overseeing a large trade with some Arabian-horse traders. Just the day before, the traders had arrived and set up camp a few miles outside Niani. The Mansa was anxious to see the herd, hoping it would be as fine as the men had promised.
Happy and excited, in the way a young child is before a big holiday, the Mansa woke up early. After a quick meal, he mounted one of his own Arabian horses, a beautiful bay, and rode out to where the caravan was camped. As he and several officers from Mali’s cavalry approached the herd, he saw hundreds of sleek young horses milling about, grazing where the grass was long enough, or frolicking in small groups (first here, then there). Their coats created a giant quilt of soft grays mixed with rich chestnut, brown and almost golden tones, all of which were accented by patches of snow white and jet black.
The Mansa, who was an excellent rider, already owned several Arabians and knew their capabilities well. He also knew that the strength of Mali’s cavalry, 10,000 riders strong, depended as much upon the speed and endurance of its horses as upon the skills of its riders.
By the end of the day, a bargain had been struck with the traders, and the Mansa had selected eleven superb young horses to add to the royal stable. The rest of the herd would belong to the cavalry. Almost all of the horses, the Mansa and the officers agreed, would become strong enough and fast enough to ride into battle.
Mali’s cavalry—the military’s elite corps—served under the direct orders of the Mansa himself. Charging across the grasslands in tight formation, they were largely unstoppable.
Cavalrymen wore headpieces of
copper, chain-mail, or thick cloth turbans; a “shirt” of chain-mail or quilt-mail; and rode Arab, Barb, or an old breed of Saracen horses. These imported horses were very expensive. The horses the Sudanese bred were, for some reason, too small.
Though the Mansa may not have ridden out to view the horses himself, he did maintain direct communication with foreign traders throughout his empire, and had commercial agents empowered to buy from them before they could sell to anyone else. This gave the Mansa a nearly monopolistic control over imports and exports of strategic importance such as metals and horses.4
Chapter 5
AN OUNCE OF GOLD FOR AN OUNCE OF SALT
MINING, AGRICULTURE, AND TRADE formed the basis of Mali’s economy. Its mines, both those within Mali proper and those under Mali’s control, produced large quantities of high-quality gold, copper, and salt. Its farmers, ranchers, and fishermen all became increasingly productive and diversified under the Mansa’s leadership. This provided Mali’s people with a varied and plentiful stock of healthy foods and a large supply of cotton and leather. It was trade, however, that grew most dramatically during his reign.
Mansa Musa’s focus on securing the countryside paid off. With the bandits gone and the constant threat of robbery and physical injury over, the traders celebrated by extending their routes across all of Mali’s lands. They began to carry more and more goods and to earn ever-larger profits. As word of their riches spread, more traders came to Mali. They brought goods from as far away as Europe, India, Persia, and even China.
In return for silks and spices from China, sharp knives and small hand tools from Europe, exquisite Persian brocades, Arabian horses, and all the other marvelous goods the traders brought, they received valuable loads of gold, copper, cotton cloth, and other fine products from Mali. As the traders prospered, Mali prospered. Every load of goods the traders carried into or out of Mali was taxed by the empire, and so the empire grew rich. As the traders began to carry more goods and as the number of traders increased, the empire grew very rich.
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