79. James T. Hutson, John Adams and the Diplomacy of the American Revolution (Lexington, KY: University Press of Kentucky, 1980); Jonathan Dull, A Diplomatic History of the American Revolution (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1985); Ronald Hoffman and Peter J. Albert, eds., The Treaty of Paris (1783) in A Changing States System (Maryland Universities Press of America for the Woodrow Wilson International Center for Scholars, 1985); and Samuel Flagg Bemis, The Diplomacy of the American Revolution (Bloomington, IN: University of Indiana Press, 1957).
80. Sylvia R. Frey, Water from the Rock: Black Resistance in a Revolutionary Age (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1991); Woody Holton, Forced Founders: Indians, Debtors, Slaves and the Making of the American Revolution (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1999).
Chapter 4. A Nation of Law, 1776–89
1. Gary Wills, Inventing America: Jefferson’s Declaration of Independence (Garden City, NY: Doubleday, 1978).
2. Adams quoted in Winthrop Jordan and Leon Litwack, The United States, combined ed., 7th ed. (Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall, 1991), 131.
3. Joseph J. Ellis, Founding Brothers: The Revolutionary Generation (New York: Vintage, 2002), 130.
4. Ibid., 121.
5. Gordon S. Wood, Creation of the American Republic, 1776–1787 (New York: W. W. Norton, 1972) and Forrest McDonald, E Pluribus Unum: The Formation of the American Republic, 1776–1790 (Boston: Houghton Mifflin, 1965).
6. Ellis, Founding Brothers, 8.
7. Bernard Bailyn, et al., The Great Republic (Lexington, MA: D. C. Heath, 1985), 132.
8. Ibid.
9. Paul Johnson, A History of the American People (New York: HarperCollins, 1997), 179.
10. Ibid.
11. Jackson Turner Main, The Anti-Federalists: Critics of the Constitution, 1781–1788 (New York: Norton, 1961), 9.
12. Merrill Jensen, The Articles of Confederation: An Interpretation of the Social-Constitutional History of the American Revolution, 1774–1781 (Madison, WI: University of Wisconsin Press, 1959); and The New Nation: A History of the United States During the Confederation, 1781–1789 (New York: Knopf, 1950).
13. Jensen, New Nation, xiii.
14. Ibid., vii–xv.
15. Wood, Creation of the American Republic, 125–255.
16. Johnson, A History of the American People, 117.
17. Ibid., 116; Paul Johnson, “God and the Americans,” Commentary, January 1995, 25–45.
18. Alexis de Tocqueville, Democracy in America, vol. 1 (New York: Vintage, 1935), 319.
19. Ibid., 316.
20. Edward L. Queen II, Stephen R. Prothero, and Gardiner H. Shattuck Jr., The Encyclopedia of American Religious History (New York: Facts on File and Proseworks, 1996), 682–86.
21. Thomas Buckley, “After Disestablishment: Thomas Jefferson’s Wall of Separation in Antebellum Virginia,” Journal of Southern History 61 (1995), 445–800, quotation on 479–80.
22. Michael Allen, Western Rivermen, 1763–1861: Ohio and Mississippi Boatmen and the Myth of the Alligator Horse (Baton Rouge: Louisiana State University Press, 1990), 58–87.
23. Reuben Gold Thwaites, Daniel Boone (New York: D. Appleton, 1902).
24. George Dangerfield, The Era of Good Feelings (New York: Harcourt, Brace, 1952), 116, 105–21.
25. Reginald Horsman, The Frontier in the Formative Years, 1783–1815 (New York: Holt, Rinehart, and Winston, 1970), 32–36.
26. Ibid., 37, 84–87, 102–3; Francis S. Philbrick, The Rise of the West, 1763–1830 (New York: Harper and Row, 1965), 104–33.
27. Michael Allen, Congress and the West, 1783–1787 (New York: Edwin Miller Press), chap. 2; Hernando DeSoto, The Mystery of Capital: Why Capitalism Triumphs in the West and Fails Everywhere Else (New York: Basic Books, 2000).
28. Richard B. Morris, The Forging of the Union, 1781–1789 (New York, 1987), 228.
29. For land and Indian policy, see see Michael Allen, “The Federalists and the West, 1783–1803,” Western Pennsylvania Historical Magazine, 61, October 1978, 315–32 and “Justice for the Indians: The Federalist Quest, 1786–1792,” Essex Institute Historical Collections, 122, April 1986, 124–41.
30. Jacob Piatt Dunn, “Slavery Petitions and Papers,” Indiana State Historical Society Publications, 2, 1894, 443–529.
31. Peter S. Onuf, “From Constitution to Higher Law: The Reinterpretation of the Northwest Ordinance,” Ohio History, 94, Winter/Spring 1985, 5–33.
32. Paul Finkleman, “States’ Rights North and South in Antebellum America,” in Kermit L. Hall and James W. Ely Jr., An Uncertain Tradition: Constitutionalism and the History of the South (Athens, GA: University of Georgia Press, 1989), 125–58.
33. Herbert James Henderson, Party Politics in the Continental Congress (New York: McGraw-Hill, 1975), 1–3.
34. Gilman M. Ostrander, Republic of Letters: The American Intellectual Community, 1775–1865 (Madison, WI: Madison House, 1999).
35. Main, Anti-Federalists, viii–ix; Edmund S. Morgan, Inventing the People: The Rise of Popular Sovereignty in England and America (New York: W. W. Norton, 1988).
36. Jensen, New Nation, 125–28.
37. Hamilton quoted in Winston S. Churchill, The Great Republic: A History of America (New York: Random House, 1999), 97.
38. Edwin J. Perkins, American Public Finance and Financial Services, 1700–1815 (Columbus: Ohio State University Press, 1994); E. James Ferguson, The Power of the Purse: A History of American Public Finance, 1776–1790 (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1961); Bray Hammond, Banks and Politics in America from the Revolution to the Civil War (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1957).
39. Charles T. Ritchenseon, Aftermath of Revolution: British Policy Towards the United States, 1783–1795 (Dallas: Southern Methodist University Press, 1969).
40. Arthur P. Whitaker, The Spanish-American Frontier, 1783–1795 (Boston: Houghton-Mifflin, 1927); Richard W. Van Alstyne, The Rising American Empire (New York: Oxford, 1960).
41. Van Beck Hall, Politics Without Parties: Massachusetts, 1780–1791 (Pittsburgh: University of Pittsburgh Press, 1972); Ronald Hoffman and Peter Albert, eds., Sovereign States in an Age of Uncertainty (Charlottesville: University Press of Virginia, 1981); Peter S. Onuf, The Origins of the Federal Republic: Jurisdictional Controversies in the United States (Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, 1983).
42. Catherine Drinker Bowen, Miracle at Philadelphia (Boston: Little, Brown, 1966), 18.
43. Oscar Handlin and Lilian Handlin, A Restless People: America in Rebellion, 1770–1787 (Garden City, NY: Anchor Press, 1982).
44. Rock Brynner, “Fire Beneath Our Feet: Shays’ Rebellion and Its Constitutional Impact,” Ph.D. diss., Columbia University, 1993; Daniel P. Szatmary, Shays’ Rebellion: The Making of an Agrarian Insurrection (Amherst: University of Massachusetts Press, 1980); Robert A. Freer, Shays’ Rebellion (New York: Garland, 1988); Bowen, Miracle at Philadelphia, 31.
45. Bowen, Miracle at Philadelphia, 31.
46. Charles Beard, The Economic Interpretation of the Constitution (New York: Macmillan, 1913), passim.
47. Wood, Creation of the American Republic, 469–564.
48. Bowen, Miracle at Philadelphia, 13.
49. Christopher M. Duncan, The Anti-Federalists and Early American Political Thought (DeKalb, IL: Northern Illinois University Press, 1995); and Main, The Anti-Federalists, passim.
50. Johnson, History of the American People, 187.
51. Melvin I. Urofsky, A March of Liberty: A Constitutional History of the United States, 2 vols. (New York: Knopf, 1988), I:91–92.
52. Johnson, History of the American People, 186.
53. Bailyn, Great Republic, 234.
54. Roger H. Brown, Redeeming the Republic: Federalists, Taxation, and the Origins of the Constitution (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1993).
55. Tocqueville, Democracy in America, I:213.
56. Howard A. Ohline, “Republicanism and Slavery: Origins of the Th
ree-Fifths Clause in the United States Constitution,” William & Mary Quarterly, 28, 1971, 563–84.
57. Max Farrand, ed., The Records of the Federal Convention of 1787, rev. ed., (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1937), I:193.
58. Donald L. Robinson, Slavery and the Structure of American Politics, 1765–1820 (New York: Harcourt Brace Jovanovich, 1971), 180.
59. William H. Freehling, “The Founding Fathers and Slavery,” American Historical Review, February 1972, 81–93 (quotation on 84).
60. Ellis, Founding Brothers, 89–90.
61. Ibid., 113.
62. Ibid., 158; Fritz Hirschfeld, George Washington and Slavery: A Documentary Portrayal (Columbia: University of Missouri Press, 1997); Robert E. Dalzell Jr. and Lee Baldwin Dalzell, George Washington’s Mount Vernon: At Home in Revolutionary America (New York: Oxford, 1998), 112, 211–19.
63. William M. Wiecek, The Sources of Antislavery Constitutionalism in America, 1760–1848 (Ithaca: Cornell University Press, 1977), 67.
64. Ibid.
65. Finkleman, “States’ Rights North and South,” passim.
66. William W. Freehling, “The Founding Fathers: Conditional Antislavery and the Nonradicalization of the American Revolution,” in Freehling, ed., The Reintegration of American History: Slavery and the Civil War (New York: Oxford, 1994), 12–31.
67. Ellis, Founding Brothers, 93.
68. Johnson, History of the American People, 188.
69. Urofsky, March of Liberty, I:95–96; Wood, Creation of the American Republic, 533–35.
70. Main, Anti-Federalists, viii–x.
71. Wood, Creation of the American Republic, 533–35.
72. Beard, Economic Interpretation of the Constitution, passim.
73. Forrest McDonald, We the People: The Economic Origins of the Constitution (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1958); Robert McGuire and Robert L. Ohsfeldt, “An Economic Model of Voting Behavior Over Specific Issues at the Constitutional Convention of 1787,” Journal of Economic History, 46, March 1986, 79–111; and their earlier article “Economic Interests and the American Constitution: A Quantitative Rehabilitation of Charles A. Beard,” ibid., 44, 1984, 509–20. See also Richard B. Morris, “The Confederation Period and the American Historian,” William and Mary Quarterly, 3rd series, 13, 1956, 139–56.
74. Schweikart, Entrepreneurial Adventure, chap. 2, discusses these issues at length.
75. M. Stanton Evans, The Theme Is Freedom: Religion, Politics, and the American Tradition (Washington, D.C.: Regnery, 1994), 101.
76. George Bancroft, History of the United States of America, vol. 6 (New York: D. Appleton, 1912), 44–59.
77. Wood, Creation of the American Republic, 522.
78. Ibid., 537.
79. “Centinel” quoted in Michael Allen, “Anti-Federalism and Libertarianism,” Reason Papers, 7, Spring 1981, 85.
80. Jonathan Elliot, The Debates of the Several State Conventions on the Adoption of the Federal Constitution, vol. 1 (Philadelphia: J. B. Lippincott, 1859), 44–46.
81. Clinton Rossiter, ed., The Federalist Papers (New York: Signet, 1961).
82. Paul Goodman, “The First American Party System,” in William Nisbet Chambers and Walter Dean Burnham, eds., The American Party Systems (New York: Oxford University Press, 1967), 56–89.
83. Charles Calomiris, “Alexander Hamilton,” in Larry Schweikart, ed., Encyclopedia of American Business and Economic History: Banking and Finance to 1913 (New York: Facts on File, 1990), 239–48.
84. Bancroft, History of the United States, 6:380.
85. Main, The Anti-Federalists, 187–249.
86. R. Kent Newmeyer, “John Marshall and the Southern Constitutional Tradition,” in Kermit L. Hall and James W. Ely Jr., eds., An Uncertain Tradition: Constitutionalism and the History of the South (Athens, GA: University of Georgia Press, 1989), 105–24 (quotation on 115).
87. Allen, “Antifederalism and Libertarianism,” 86–87.
88. Wood, Creation of the American Republic, 542–43.
89. Robert A. Rutland, ed., The Papers of James Madison (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1962), 10:208; W. Cleon Skousen, The Making of America (Washington, D.C.: The National Center for Constitutional Studies, 1985), 5.
90. Sol Bloom, The Story of the Constitution (Washington, D.C.: U.S. Sesquicentennial Commission, 1937), 43.
91. Stephen P. Halbrook, That Every Man Be Armed: The Evolution of a Constitutional Right (Albuquerque: University of New Mexico Press, 1984).
92. Urofsky, March of Liberty, I:108–10.
93. Ellis, Founding Brothers, 216.
Chapter 5. Small Republic, Big Shoulders, 1789–1815
1. Ralph Ketcham, Presidents Above Party: The First American Presidency (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1984); Glenn A. Phelps, George Washington and American Constitutionalism (Lawrence, KS: University Press of Kansas, 1993); Stanley Elkins and Eric McKitrick, The Age of Federalism (New York: Oxford, 1993); and John C. Miller, The Federalist Era, 1789–1801 (New York: Harper, 1960).
2. Goldfield, et al., American Journey, 226.
3. See http://etc.princeton.edu/CampusWWW/Companion/freneau_philip.html for a brief biography of Freneau and Philip M. Marsh, Philip Freneau, Poet and Journalist (Minneapolis: Dillon Press, 1967).
4. Joseph J. Ellis, Founding Brothers: The Revolutionary Generation (New York: Vintage, 2002), 126.
5. Ibid., 121, 126.
6. Ibid., 121.
7. Douglas Southall Freeman, George Washington, a Biography (New York: Charles Scribner’s, 1948–1957).
8. Leonard C. White, The Federalists: A Study in Administrative History (New York: Macmillan, 1948); Marcus Cunliffe, George Washington (Boston: Little, Brown, 1958).
9. John E. Ferling, John Adams, A Life (New York: Henry Holt, 1996); Gilbert Chinard, Honest John Adams (Boston: Little, Brown, 1933); Joseph J. Ellis, Passionate Sage: The Character and Legacy of John Adams (New York: W. W. Norton, 2001).
10. L. H. Butterfield, ed., John Adams, Diary and Autobiography (Cambridge: Belknap, 1961) allows Adams to speak for himself.
11. Adrienne Koch, Jefferson and Madison: The Great Collaboration (London: Oxford, 1964); Irving Brant, James Madison (Indianapolis: Bobbs-Merrill, 1941).
12. Paul Johnson, A History of the American People (New York: HarperCollins, 1997), 211.
13. Dumas Malone, Jefferson and His Time, 5 vols. (Boston: Little, Brown, 1948–1981); Noble Cunningham Jr., In Pursuit of Reason: The Life of Thomas Jefferson (Baton Rouge: Louisiana State University Press, 1987); Merrill Peterson, Thomas Jefferson and the New Nation: A Biography (New York: Oxford, 1970). A good overview of recent scholarship on Jefferson appears in Peter S. Onuf, “The Scholars’ Jefferson,” William and Mary Quarterly, 3d series, 50, October 1993, 671–99.
14. Thomas Jefferson, Notes on the State of Virginia (Boston: Wells and Lilly, 1829).
15. Larry Schweikart, The Entrepreneurial Adventure: A History of Business in the United States (Fort Worth: Harcourt, 2000), 64–67.
16. The Sally Hemings controversy, which erupted again in the 1990s when DNA tests showed that descendants had the DNA of the Jefferson family, remains clouded, and even the new tests do not establish Jefferson’s paternity. Among the different views in the recent disputes, see Douglas L. Wilson, “Thomas Jefferson and the Character Issue,” Atlantic Monthly, November 1992, 57–74; Scot A. French and Edward L. Ayers, “The Strange Career of Thomas Jefferson: Race and Slavery in American Memory, 1943–1993,” in Peter S. Onuf, ed., Jeffersonian Legacies (Charlottesville: University Press of Virginia, 1993), 418–56; Lucia Stanton, “Those Who Labor for my Happiness: Thomas Jefferson and His Slaves,” ibid., 147–80; and Paul Finkleman, “Jefferson and Slavery: Treason Against the Hopes of the World,” ibid., 181–221.
17. Broadus Mitchell, Alexander Hamilton: A Concise Biography (New York: Oxford University Press, 1976); Forrest McDonald, Alexander Hamilton: A Biography (New York: Norton, 1979).
18. Cecili
a Kenyon, “Alexander Hamilton: Rousseau of the Right,” Political Science Quarterly, 73, June 1958, 161–78.
19. Joyce Appleby, Capitalism and a New Social Order: The Republican Vision of the 1790s (New York: New York University Press, 1984); Richard Buel Jr., Securing the Revolution: Ideology in American Politics (Ithaca: Cornell University Press, 1974); Lance Banning, The Jeffersonian Persuasion: Evolution of a Party Ideology (Ithaca: Cornell University Press, 1978); Semour Lipset, The First New Nation: The United States in Historical and Comparative Perspective (Garden City, NY: Doubleday, 1967 [1963]).
A Patriot's History of the United States: From Columbus's Great Discovery to the War on Terror Page 138
