77. Doug George-Kanetiio, columns for the Syracuse Herald American, February 19, 1995, and May 14, 1995.
78. On the Seneca referendum, see Putnam Reporter Dispatch, May 3, 1998, B1.
79. Interview with Elaine Quiver (Grey Eagle), Pine Ridge Reservation, May 21, 1997. This testimony can be found on pre-printed postcards mailed in May 1995 and used by many tribes to get their members to communicate their convictions to the Forest Service. See Archives of the U.S. Forest Service, Spearfish Canyon, South Dakota. The quote from Jesse Taken Alive was recorded by Forest Ranger Craig Lunsdorff, May 16, 1995, Lunsdorff’s notes, U.S. Forest Service, Spearfish Canyon, South Dakota.
80. Wendell Berry, Unsettling of America (San Francisco: Sierra Club Books, 1977), pp. 3–4; John Collier, From Every Zenith: A Memoir and Some Essays on Life and Thought (Denver: Sage Books, 1963), pp. 15, 137; and Thoreau, “Walking,” in Robert Finch and John Elder, eds., The Norton Book of Nature Writing (New York: W.W. Norton, 1990), p. 183.
81. See Bill Bradley, Time Present, Time Past (New York: Alfred A. Knopf, 1996), pp. 314–16; Lazarus, Black Hills Justice, pp. 319–20; and Bordewich, Killing the White Man’s Indian, pp. 232–33.
82. Armstrong Wiggins, “Indian Rights and Environment,” Daybreak (spring 1993), 3; Oren Lyons, “The Faith Keeper,” interview with Bill Moyers, video (Public Affairs Television, 1991); N. Scott Momaday, The Man Made of Words (New York: St. Martin’s Press, 1997), pp. 49–51, 111, 124.
83. For a fine analysis written in this spirit, see Donald Worster, “The Black Hills: Sacred or Profane?” in Worster, Under Western Skies (New York: Oxford University Press, 1992), pp. 106–53.
84. Edward Shils, Tradition (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1981), p. 326.
85. Anonymous speaker, circa 1990, quoted in Nabokov, Native American Testimony, p. 412.
4. EDUCATING FOR THE ROAD:
AMERICAN UNIVERSITIES IN A GLOBAL AGE
1. Clark Kerr, The Uses of the University (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1963, 1982), p. 86; Susan M. Fitzpatrick (program officer for the James S. McDonnell Foundation) and John T. Bruer (president of the McDonnell Foundation), “Science Funding and Private Philanthropy,” editorial, Science, August 1997, 621.
2. Vance Packard, A Nation of Strangers (New York: David McKay and Co., 1972), p. 85.
3. Even universities in the South, hitherto immune, felt the impact of this trend; in 1970, the University of Georgia boasted an unprecedented 17 percent out-of-state enrollment. These figures come from ibid., pp. 85–88.
4. Packard wrote in 1972 that “one unsettling result of this trend has been that hundreds of U.S. towns and villages are stripped of about half of all their young people in the 18–22 age bracket” (ibid., p. 83).
5. Ibid., pp. 88–90. Packard drew here on a study by David G. Brown, The Mobile Professors, commissioned in 1967 by the American Council on Education.
6. The South African writer Es’kia Mphahlele, who taught in the United States in the 1960s and early seventies before returning to his country in 1977, expressed dismay at this way of organizing academic life. “I got to learn, when I was in the United States,” he observed, “that an academic can, if he likes, lose himself in intellectual pursuits, move only in the university community, and be insulated from the rest of the larger community out there.… I didn’t want that to happen to me, so that my self-respect hung on the thin thread of long-distance commitment.” See Mphahlele, “Africa in Exile,” in Marc Robinson, ed., Altogether Elsewhere (New York: Harvest, 1994), p. 127.
7. Bill Bray, chief executive officer of a tribal corporation, quoted in Chronicle of Higher Education, July 11, 1997, B9.
8. On this diversity of schools, see Anne Matthews, Bright College Years: Inside the American Campus Today (New York: Simon and Schuster, 1997), pp. 63–65; Patrick Callan, “Stewards of Opportunity: America’s Public Community Colleges,” Daedalus (fall 1997), 95–112.
9. Sheldon Rothblatt, “The ‘Place’ of Knowledge in the American Academic Profession,” Daedalus (fall 1997), 259, 245–65; see also Rothblatt, The Modern University and Its Discontents (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1997), pp. 79–84.
10. “Every U.S. research university,” said Rodney Nichols, CEO of the New York Academy of Sciences in 1993, “is a powerhouse, and more such campuses exist than a generation ago. For this growth Uncle Sam deserves much credit.” See Nichols, “Federal Science Policy and Universities, in Jonathan Cole, ed., The Research University in a Time of Discontent (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1994), p. 273. By 1995 the government was supporting more than 60 percent of all research, a percentage leap that occurred principally during the Reagan years (see Science, vol. 270, October 6, 1995, 136). In 1973, funding was about $2 billion; in 1983, $5 billion; in 1988, $8 billion; and in 1993, more than $12 billion.
11. “For both NYU and Greenwich Village,” NYU’s president, L. Jay Oliva, said in 1993, “the days of working as isolated satellites are over.” Quoted in Craig Smith, “Jay Oliva: Optimism Born of Experience,” Stern Business (winter 1993), 12. For a thumbnail sketch of NYU, see Nathan Glazer’s essay in Thomas Bender, ed., The University and the City: From Medieval Origins to the Present (New York: Oxford University Press, 1988).
12. Interview with Don Lotz, Port Authority of New York and New Jersey, March 27, 1998. On the value of an “ordinary” Las Vegas casino, see Wall Street Journal (hereafter WSJ), March 13, 1998, A3; and on the size of university endowments in 1997, see “Bullish Stock Market Pushes Endowments Up 21.9% in 1997, to More Than $150 Billion,” Chronicle of Higher Education, February 20, 1998, A48. (For example, Harvard has a $10 billion endowment; University of Texas, $6.7 billion; Yale, $5.7 billion; Princeton, $5 billion; Columbia, $3 billion; and so forth.)
13. Quoted in Matthews, Bright College Years, p. 106.
14. Eugene B. Skolnikoff, “Knowledge Without Boundaries,” in Cole, The Research University, pp. 339–40.
15. “Columbia University in the City of New York,” The President’s Report, 1994–95, 40–42; and ibid., 1995–96, 45–53.
16. New York Times (hereafter NYT), November 6, 1994, 4A, and March 1, 1994, B1; also “Experience Summer at the First Truly Global University,” document distributed to the NYU Summer School, 1996, in author’s possession.
17. Quoted in Karen Arenson, “At N.Y.U. a Global Strategy to Encourage Foreign Study and Travel,” NYT, March 26, 1997, B11. In the 1982 postscript to his book, The Uses of the University, Clark Kerr argued that the research universities of today have changed little from those in the past. “The Harvard of 1982,” he wrote, “is not all that different from the Harvard of 1963, or the Berkeley of 1982 from that of 1963” (p. 152). This can no longer be said, for, as this chapter shows, these universities have entered a new age.
18. The University of Phoenix is the best known of these institutions, but others have been mandated into existence by state legislatures. See Thomas Mitchell (vice chancellor, UCLA), “Border Crossings: Organizational Boundaries and Challenges to the American Professoriate,” Daedalus (fall 1997), 265–92; Mitchell, “For Profit Higher Education Sees Booming Enrollments and Revenues,” Chronicle of Higher Education, January 23, 1998, A36.
19. The bigger endowments, too, have in some fashion contributed to the breakdown of the walls separating universities from the market (and from the priorities set by the market). For the past five years, academic investment offices have invested in not only developed but also emerging global markets, thus linking their schools more than ever to the global economy. On investments in emerging markets, see “Universities Weigh the Risk and Rewards of Investing in ‘Emerging Markets,’ ” Chronicle of Higher Education, March 13, 1998, A45. “Investing in emerging markets,” the Chronicle reported, “was virtually unheard of just 15 years ago.” In another article, the same journal indicated that college investments in foreign markets had grown from 1.5 percent of the value of endowments in 1988 to 9.5 percent of that value in 1996 (“Ten
Years after ‘Black Monday,’ Colleges Run with the Bulls,” Chronicle of Higher Education, October 17, 1997, A44).
20. “Advanced Technology Program Proposal Preparation Kit” (U.S. Department of Commerce, Technology Administration, November 1996), 1. This program has not gotten the public (or historical) scrutiny it deserves. On the long history of this relation, Paul Gray, former president of MIT, has written that “no other country has had that capacity or linkage” (quoted in Norman Bowie, ed., The University-Business Partnerships [Lanham, Md.: Rowman and Littlefield, 1994], pp. 122–23). On the different patterns in Germany, France, and so on, see Robert R. Locke, “Business Education in Germany: Past Systems and Current Practice,” Business History Review 59 (summer 1985), 232–53; Locke, End of the Practical Man, Entrepreneurship and Higher Education in Germany, France, and Great Britain, 1880–1942 (Greenwich, Conn.: JAI Press, 1984). On the business phaseout of research labs, see Walter Massey, “Uncertainties in the Changing Academic Profession,” Daedalus (fall 1997), 77; on the federal role, see David Noble, “Technology Transfer at MIT: A Critical View,” in Bowie, The University-Business Partnerships, pp. 130–31; on state enthusiasm, “States Compete to Recruit Top Scientists,” WSJ, April 23, 1997, A2.
21. Rothblatt, “The ‘Place’ of Knowledge,” p. 262. See also Rothblatt, The Modern University and Its Discontents, pp. 43–48.
22. Michael I. Luger and Harvey A. Goldstein, Technology in the Garden: Research Parks and Regional Economic Development (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina, 1991), pp. xv–xvii; Roger Geiger, Research and Relevant Knowledge, American Research Universities Since World War II (New York: Oxford, 1993), pp. 316–17; and, for 1997 numbers, see Peter Schmidt, “Engineering Complex at Virginia Commonwealth University Helps Lure Motorola,” Chronicle of Higher Education, June 6, 1997, p. A30.
23. On the character of this park, see Luger and Goldstein, Technology in the Garden, pp 76–99; “A Staid Research Park Finds New Life as a Cultivator of High-Tech Start-Ups,” WSJ, August 16, 1996, B1; Therese R. Welter, “Pooling in the Park,” Industry Week, April 4, 1988, 26, 28.
24. Chronicle of Higher Education, October 3, 1998, A41; “Engineering Complex at Virginia Commonwealth University Helps Lure Motorola,” Chronicle of Higher Education; on the University of Connecticut, see Hartford Courant, March 6, 1998 (courtesy of Mark Prisloe, economist, Department of Economic and Community Development State of Connecticut); and on the University of Massachusetts, see NYT, January 21, 1998, A14.
25. Paul Selvin, “The Future University: Leaner and Meaner?” Science, October 6, 1995, 136. Recent articles on Monsanto include: “American Home, Monsanto Accord Won’t Fill a Void,” WSJ, June 4, 1998, B10; “Monsanto Tackles a Sceptical Public,” Marketing Week, Sept. 4, 1997, 19–20.
26. It had the further outcome of inspiring the reinvention of that university in a way that suited the cost-effective passions of Monsanto. In the late 1990s, Richard Mahoney, former CEO of the firm, chaired the Finance Committee of the Board of Trustees of the Washington University School of Medicine. Under his leadership, the medical school slashed administrative expenses by many millions of dollars; it did this, in Mahoney’s words, by “consolidating units” and by contracting “with outside companies to handle such things as purchasing, payroll, billing, and collection.” “We are now making comparable changes in several of the academic departments,” Mahoney wrote in a 1997 article for the Chronicle of Higher Education in which he also urged other universities to follow the Wash. U. model. “Hire outside contractors,” he advised, not just in restaurants or bookstores (schools were already doing that) but in “any activity that is not at the heart of an institution’s mission.” Why not “buy out or phase out unproductive faculty members?” “Just think about the cost of 10 or 15 years of salary and support services for unproductive people.” “Although a university is not a corporation,” Mahoney also said, “I firmly believe that academic institutions can derive enormous benefit by applying lessons from the experience of Monsanto and other companies that have ‘reinvented’ themselves during the past decade” (Richard J. Mahoney, “ ‘Reinventing’ the University: Object Lessons from Big Business,” Chronicle of Higher Education, October 17, 1997, B4–5).
27. Chronicle of Higher Education, December 19, 1997, A38; and Theodore Mitchell, “Border Crossings,” Daedalus (fall 1997), 283–84. On Stanford’s early history, see Luger and Goldstein, Technology in the Garden, pp. 122–53; Kerr, The Uses of the University, p. 89; and James Alley, “The Heart of Silicon Valley,” Fortune, July 7, 1997, 66–74. For other university-business partnerships, see Bowie, The University-Business Partnerships, pp. 23–31, 107–42; Edwin Artzt, “Developing the Next Generation of Quality Leaders,” Quality Program, October 1992, 25–27; and Chronicle of Higher Education, November 3, 1993, A27.
28. “How Stanford and Yamaha Cut an Unusual Technology Deal,” Chronicle of Higher Education, August 7, 1998, pp. A36–38.
29. Stewart Brand, The Media Lab: Inventing the Future at MIT (New York: Viking, 1987), p. 6.
30. See Charle M. Vest, “Research Universities: Overextended, Underfocused, Overstressed, Underfunded,” in Ronald G. Ehrenberg, ed., The American University: National Treasure or Endangered Species? (Ithaca: Cornell University Press, 1997), pp. 43, 46, 55. Just as Vest was making his charge about the decline in the “national will to excel,” Peter V. Domenici, senator from New Mexico and expert on the budget, urged, in an editorial letter to Science, that “scientists” should “take note that total federal R&D spending increased by 1% (from $71.0 to $71.7 billion).” “Congress wrote these increases into law,” he reported “while decreasing overall discretionary spending by 2.4%. Contrary to claims that Congress is threatening to turn the clock backward with the largest cuts in 15 years, Congress sets a high priority on science and backs it up with research dollars” (September 6, 1996, 1319). A month later, Science itself conceded that “the drastic cuts in federal R&D … failed to materialize” (October 18, 1996, 332). In May of 1997, moreover, the House of Representatives voted to increase 1998 spending for the National Science Foundation by 7.2 percent over what it spent the previous year (Chronicle of Higher Education, May 2, 1997, A38).
Finally, in 1998, the Clinton administration requested in its 1999 federal budget that Congress invest $14.47 billion in academic research and development, an increase of $838 million, or nearly 6 percent. The congressional leadership—above all, Newt Gingrich—backed this up. On the increase, see Chronicle of Higher Education, February 13, 1998, A38. See also, “New Budget Provides Life for Science,” Science News, February 7, 1998, 87. (“Presidential adviser John H. Gibbons,” Science News reported, “notes that the 1999 budget emphasizes the research component of R&D—welcome news to universities whose faculty pursue fundamental questions in science. Indeed, funding for basic research, both civilian and military, would increase 5.5 percent after inflation.”)
31. Quoted in Mark Slouka, War of the Worlds: Cyberspace and the High-Tech Assault on Reality (New York: Basic Books, 1995), pp. 68–69.
32. Quoted in “MIT Media Lab Plans New Effort for Children,” Chronicle of Higher Education, October 31, 1997, A39.
33. Michael Dertouzos, What Will Be (New York: Harper Edge, 1997), pp. 239–41, 282–83.
34. Paul Gray, quoted in Bowie, The University-Business Partnerships, pp. 122–23.
35. Bowie, The University-Business Partnerships, p. 132; and Brand, The Media Lab, p. 167.
36. Quoted in Chronicle of Higher Education, October 9, 1998, A56.
37. Rhoads Murphy, professor of history at the University of Michigan, in response to a 1995 curriculum retrenchment at U. of M. (in particular, the elimination of the geography department), in Selvin, “The Future University: Leaner and Meaner?” 135. For accounts of the growing relationship between business and the academy in its many incarnations, see “Louisiana Plans to Meld 50 Campuses into a Coherent 2-Year College System” (… “with business leaders given extraordinary inf
luence to guide the effort”) Chronicle of Higher Education, May 1, 1998, A40; “Increase in Number of Chairs Endowed by Corporations Prompts New Concerns,” May 1, 1998, A51, A53; “Pacts Between Universities and Companies Worry Federal Officials,” May 15, 1998; “Conflict-of-Interest Fears Rise as Universities Chase Industry Support,” May 22, 1998, A41.
38. “Freshman Class Adds a New Meaning to the Term ‘Diversity,’ ” NYU Today, January 20, 1992, 1.
39. Asian representation in freshman classes after 1995 was especially very high, although their number in the overall population was small (3 percent)—35 to 40 percent at Berkeley, nearly 50 percent at UCLA, 60 percent at Irvine, 20 percent at Harvard, 27 percent at Stanford, 25 percent at Columbia. See Chan-Liu Tien, “The Role of Asian Americans in Higher Education,” speech delivered at City University of New York, May 5, 1995, excerpted in Migration World 23 (1995) 4: 14, 23–25; Chronicle of Higher Education, March 17, 1995, A26, December 14, 1994, A33; Rochester Review, Spring–Summer 1993, 9.
40. NYT, July 22, 1996, D7. On the assumed economic rewards of going to the best schools, see Gene Katz, “Sheepskins to Show Off,” Business Week, April 25, 1996. On immigrant characteristics generally, see David S. North, Soothing the Establishment: The Impact of Foreign-Born Scientists and Engineers on America (New York: University Press of America, 1995).
41. Quoted in Matthews, Bright College Years, p. 33.
42. Officials quoted in Chronicle of Higher Education, October 9, 1998, A45; Richard Krasno (president of the Institute for International Education), quoted in Chronicle of Higher Education, December 6, 1996, A64; and Todd Davis (director of research for same institution and associate professor of “higher-education administration” [sic] at the University of North Texas), quoted in Chronicle of Higher Education, November 23, 1994, A38.
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