The Many-Headed Hydra

by Peter Linebaugh

  Chapter Four

  1. Daniel Lysons, The Environs of London (1791).

  2. A Vindication of the Army (1647); Short Memorials of Thomas Lord Fairfax (1699), 104–6.

  3. Dan M. Wolfe, The Purple Testament: Life Stories of Disabled Veterans (Garden City, N.Y.: Doubleday, 1946).

  4. A. S. P. Woodhouse, ed., Puritanism and Liberty: being the Army debates (1647–9) from the Clarke manuscripts with supplementary documents, 1st ed. (London: Dent, 1938); and see the prefaces by Ivan Roots to the 1974 edition and to the Everyman edition of 1986.

  5. After the death of Frederick Engels, Edouard Bernstein published Socialism and Democracy in the Great English Revolution (1895); English translation by H. J. Stenning, Cromwell & Communism: Socialism and Democracy in the Great English Revolution (London, 1930).

  6. See Thompson’s “Edgell Rickword,” in Persons & Politics (London: Merlin, 1994).

  7. “Celticus” [Aneurin Bevan], Why Not Trust the Tories? (London: Gollancz, 1945); Raphael Samuel, “British Marxist Historians, 1880–1980, Part One,” New Left Review 120 (1980): 27–28.

  8. Ras Makonnen, Pan-Africanism from Within, ed. Kenneth King (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1973), 170.

  9. Ivan Roots, ed., Puritanism and Liberty: Being the Army Debates (1647–9), 3d ed. (London: Dent, 1986).

  10. Scott MacRobert, Putney and Roehampton: A Brief History (Putney: The Putney Society, 1992). For the enclosure of Richmond Park, see Clarendon’s History of the Rebellion and Civil Wars; Lysons, Environs of London, 314; Christopher Hill, Puritanism and Revolution (London: Seeker and Warburg, 1958), 267ff.

  11. Ian Gentles, The New Model Army in England, Ireland and Scotland, 1645–1653 (Oxford: Blackwell, 1992), 35; Dan M. Wolfe, Leveller Manifestoes of the Puritan Revolution (New York: Nelson and Sons, 1944).

  12. William Bullock, Virginia Impartially Examined (1649), 47.

  13. Vincent Harlow, A History of Barbados, 1625–1685 (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1926), 300.

  14. A Remonstrance of Many Thousand Citizens (1646).

  15. E. C. Pielou, Fresh Water (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1998), 109.

  16. Taylor on Thame Isis (1632); A Dialogical Brief Discourse between Rainborough and Charon (1648).

  17. Vittorio Dini, Masaniello: L’eroe e il mito (Rome, 1995), trans. Steven Colatrella; Rosario Villari, The Revolt of Naples, trans. James Newell (Cambridge, Mass.: Polity Press, 1993).

  18. Wolfgang Goethe, Italian Journey (1786–88).

  19. Francis Midon, The History of the Rise and Fall of Masaniello, the Fisherman of Naples (1729). 95.

  20. Francis Haskell, Patrons and Painters: A Study in the Relations between Italian Art and Society in the Age of the Baroque (New Haven, Conn.: Yale University Press, 1980), 199.

  21. Midon, Masaniello, 199.

  22. Gigliola Pagano de Divitiis, English Merchants in Seventeenth-Century Italy, trans. Stephen Parkin (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1997); H. G. Koenigsberger, Estates and Revolutions: Essays in Early Modern European History (Ithaca, N.Y.: Cornell University Press, 1971).

  23. James Howell, The Exacte historie of the late Revolutions in Naples, and of their Monstrous Successes (1650).

  24. N. A. M. Rodger, The Safeguard of the Sea: A Naval History of Britain 660–1649 (London: HarperCollins, 1998), 401.

  25. John Colerus, The Life of Benedict de Spinosa (London, 1706).

  26. James Tyrrell, Biblioteca Politica (1694), 3d dialogue; Locke, First Treatise of Government (1690), para. 79.

  27. Christopher Hill, “The English Revolution and the Brotherhood of Man,” in Puritanism and Revolution: Studies in Interpretation of the English Revolution of the Seventeenth Century (New York: Schocken Books, 1958), 123–152.

  28. C. H. Firth, ed., The Clarke Papers (London: Camden Society, 1894), 2:153–63.

  29. Pseudodoxia Epidemica (1646); Works, ed. Geoffrey Keynes, vol. 2.

  30. Samuel Chidley, A Cry against a Crying Sin: Or, a just Complaint to the Magistrates, against them who have broken the Statute Laws of God, by Killing of men merely for Theft (London, 1652), republished in William Oldys and Thomas Park, eds., Harleian Miscellany (London, 1811), 8:485.

  31. An Appeale to All Englishmen, March 1649, and A Letter to the Lord Fairfax, June 1649; Lewis H. Berens, The Digger Movement in the Days of the Commonwealth (London: Merlin, 1961); Andrew Hopton, ed., Digger Tracts, 1649–1650 (London: Aporia Press, 1989).

  32. George H. Sabine, ed., The Works of Gerrard Winstanley (New York: Russell and Russell, 1965), 492. Richard Overton led the soldiers in objecting to hanging for theft in his An Appeal from the Commons to the Free People (1647).

  33. A New-Yeers Gift for the Parliament and Armie (1 January 1650), in Sabine, ed., Works, 388; A Mite Cast into the Common Treasury (1649), ed. and with an introduction by Andrew Hopton (London: Aporia Press, 1989).

  34. Chidley, A Cry against a Crying Sin, 481; Anon., More Light Shining in Buckinghamshire (1649); Robert Zaller, “The Debate on Capital Punishment during the English Revolution,” American Journal of Legal History 31, no. 2 (1987): 126–44.

  35. Hawke, The Right of Dominion, and Property of Liberty (1656), 77–78.

  36. James Connolly, Labour in Irish History (Dublin, 1910), and Christopher Hill, “Seventeenth-Century English Radicals and Ireland,” in his A Nation of Change and Novelty: Radical Politics, Religion and Literature in Seventeenth-Century England (London: Routledge, 1990), 133–51.

  37. Chris Durston, “‘Let Ireland be quiet’: Opposition in England to the Cromwellian Conquest of Ireland,” History Workshop Journal 21 (1986): 105–12; Norah Carlin, “The Levellers and the Conquest of Ireland in 1649,” Historical Journal 22 (1987).

  38. J. G. Simms, “Cromwell at Drogheda, 1649,” in his War and Politics in Ireland, 1649–1730, ed. D. W. Hayton and Gerard O’Brien, (London: Hambledon Press, 1986), Trio; T. W. Moody et al., eds., A New History of Ireland (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1976), vol. 3, Early Modern Ireland, 1534–1691, 339–41.

  39. Richard Bagwell, Ireland under the Stuarts and during the Interregnum (London: Longman, 1909–16), 2:194. C. H. Firth, Cromwell’s Army: A History of the English Soldier during the Civil Wars, the Commonwealth, and the Protectorate (London: Methuen, 1901), 337.

  40. Bagwell, Ireland under the Stuarts, 2:329, 330; S. R. Gardiner, “The Transplantation to Connaught,” English Historical Review 14 (1899): 703; John Davis, A Discovery of the True Causes why Ireland was never entirely Subdued (1612), 169.

  41. John P. Prendergast, Cromwellian Settlement of Ireland, 3d ed. (Dublin: Mellifont Press, 1922), 427.

  42. Firth, ed., Clarke Papers, 2:208.

  43. F. H. A. Aalen et al., Atlas of the Irish Rural Landscape (Toronto: University of Toronto Press, 1997), 60, 74, 80.

  44. Joseph J. Williams, Whence the “Black Irish” of Jamaica? (New York: Dial Press, 1932), 36.

  45. Theodore Allen, The Invention of the White Race (New York: Verso, 1994), 1:258.

  46. Eogan Ruadh O’ Sullivan quoted in James Clarence Mangan, The Poets and Poetry of Munster (Dublin, 1885), 181.

  47. Robert Boyle, The Excellency and Grounds of the Corpuscular or Mechanical Philosophy (1674), in Mari Boas Hall, ed., Robert Boyle on Natural Philosophy: An Essay with Selections from His Writings (Bloomington, Ind.: Indiana University Press, 1965), 195.

  48. Richard Ligon, A True & Exact History of the Island of Barbados (London, 1657), 45–6.

  49. George Downing to John Winthrop, Jr., 26 August 1645, in Elizabeth Donnan, Documents Illustrative of the History of the Slave Trade to America, vol. 1, 1441–1700 (Washington, D.C.: Carnegie Institution, 1930, 1969); George Gardyner, A Description of the New World (1651); Ligon, A True & Exact History, 86.

  50. Alexander Gunkel and Jerome S. Handler, “A German Indentured Servant in Barbados in 1652: The Account of Heinrich von Uchteritz,” Journal of the Barbados Museum and Historical Society 33 (1970): 92; George Fox, To the Ministers, Teachers, and Priests (So
called, and so Stileing your Selves) in Barbados (London, 1672), 5; Gary A. Puckrein, Little England: Plantation Society and Anglo-Barbadian Politics, 1627–1700 (New York: New York University Press, 1984), 98, 106.

  51. Great Newes from Barbados, or, a True and Faithful Account of the Grand Conspiracy of the Negroes against the English (London, 1676), 6–7.

  52. David Watts, Man’s Influence on the Vegetation of Barbados, 1627–1800 (Hull: University of Hull, 1966); Edward Kamau Brathwaite, Mother Poem (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1977); Hilary McD. Beckles, White Servitude and Black Slavery in Barbados, 1627–1715 (Knoxville, Tenn.: University of Tennessee Press, 1989), 5, 64, 77, 78.

  53. See “Extracts of the Minute Book of the Council of Barbados (1654–9),” the Reverend Aubrey Gwynn, ed., “Documents Relating to the Irish in the West Indies,” Analecta Hibernica 4 (1932): 236–37; Father Andrew White, “A Briefe Relation of the Voyage unto Maryland,” in Clayton Colman Hall, ed., Narratives of Early Maryland, 1633–1684 (New York: Charles Scribner’s Sons, 1910), 34.

  54. “Extracts of the Minute Book,” in Gwynn, ed., “Documents Relating to the Irish,” 234; Beckles, White Servitude, 111.

  55. The Negro’s and Indians Advocate (1680).

  56. Puckrein, Little England, 113; Beckles, White Servitude, 168–76.

  57. K. G. Davies, The Royal African Company (New York: Atheneum, 1970), 1; John C. Appleby, “A Guinea Venture, c. 1657: A Note on the Early English Slave Trade,” The Mariner’s Mirror 79, no. 1 (February 1993): 84–88; George Frederick Zook, The Company of Royal Adventurers Trading into Africa (1919; reprint, New York: Negro University Press, 1969), 6; J. M. Gray, A History of the Gambia (1940; reprint, New York: Barnes and Noble, 1966), 31; Davies, Royal African Company, chap. 1; David Eltis, “The British Transatlantic Slave Trade before 1714: Annual Estimates of Volume and Direction,” in Robert L. Paquette and Stanley Engerman, eds., The Lesser Antilles in the Age of European Expansion (Gainesville, Fla.: University Press of Florida, 1996), 182–205.

  58. Leopold Senghor, On African Socialism, trans. Mercer Cook (New York: Praeger, 1967).

  59. Richard Jobson, The Golden Trade; Or, A Discovery of the River Gambra (1623), 124.

  60. Charlotte A. Quinn, Mandingo Kingdoms of the Senegambia: Traditionalism, Islam, and European Expansion (Evanston, Ill.: Northwestern University Press, 1972), 7–8; Abdallah Laroui, The History of the Maghrib: An Interpretative Essay (Princeton, N.J.: Princeton University Press, 1977); Jamil M. Abun-Nasr, A History of the Maghrib (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1971).

  61. J. W. Blake, “The Farm of the Guinea Trade,” in H. A. Cronne, T. W. Moody, and D. B. Quinn, eds., Essays in British and Irish History in Honour of James Eadie Todd (London: Frederick Muller, 1949), 86–106.

  62. Donald R. Wright, The World and a Very Small Place in Africa (Armonk, N.Y.: M. E. Sharpe, 1997), 121–22; Ligon, A True & Exact History, 57; The Guinea Company to James Pope, 17 September 1651, in Donnan, Documents Illustrative, 1:128; Robert Farris Thompson, Flash of the Spirit: African and Afro-American Art and Philosophy (New York: Vintage, 1984), chap. 4.

  63. Eliot Warburton, Memoirs of Prince Rupert, and the Cavaliers, vol. 3 (London, 1849), 358.

  64. Donald R. Wright, Oral Traditions from the Gambia, vol. 1, Mandinka “Griots,” Ohio University Africa ser. no. 37 (1979): 104, 144.

  65. Bernard Capp, Cromwell’s Navy: The Fleet and the English Revolution 1648–1660 (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1989), 236.

  66. Patrick Morrah, Prince Rupert of the Rhine (London: Constable, 1976), 269.

  67. Richard Ollard, Man of War: Sir Robert Holmes and the Restoration Navy (London: Hodder and Stoughton, 1969), 89.

  68. Ibid., 67–68; Donnan, Documents Illustrative, 177–80; Wright, The World and a Very Small Place in Africa.

  69. The Pleasant History of the Life of Black Tom (1686); Roger Thompson, ed., Samuel Pepys’ Penny Merriments (New York: Columbia University Press, 1976), 212.

  70. John Towill Rutt, ed., Diary of Thomas Burton, Esq., Member in the Parliaments of Oliver and Richard Cromwell, from 1656 to 1659 (New York: Johnson Reprint Corporation, 1974), 255.

  71. Ibid., 256.

  72. Ibid., 257.

  73. Ibid., 259, 273, 308.

  74. Ibid., 260, 262, 265, 268.

  75. Ibid., 264, 270, 271, 304.

  76. Christopher Hill, The Experience of Defeat: Milton and Some Contemporaries (New York: Viking, 1984), 285–87.

  77. Richard L. Greets, Deliver Us from Evil: The Radical Underground in Britain, 1660–1663 (New York: Oxford University Press, 1986), 31, 38, 40, 53; Philip F. Gura, A Glimpse of Sion’s Glory: Puritan Radicalism in New England, 1620–1660 (Middle-town, Conn.: Wesleyan University Press, 1984), 143.

  78. Hilary McD. Beckles, “English Parliamentary Debate on ‘White Slavery’ in Barbados, 1659,” Journal of the Barbados Museum and Historical Society 36 (1982): 344–52.

  79. Greaves, Deliver Us from Evil, 33, 40, 58, 92 (quotation), 166, 229; Abbot Emerson Smith, Colonists in Bondage: White Servitude and Convict Labor in America, 1607–1776 (New York: W. W. Norton, 1947), 170; Gura, A Glimpse of Sion’s Glory, 4, 39, 78, 86.

  80. “The Servants Plot of 1663,” Virginia Magazine of History and Biography 15 (1908): 38–43.

  81. Philip Ludwell to George Chalmers, 17 July 1671, Chalmers Collection, vol. I, f. 49; Virginia Magazine of History and Biography 19 (1911): 355–56; William Waller Hening, ed., The Statutes at Large, being a Collection of all the Laws of Virginia (1819–23; reprint, Charlottesville, Va.: University of Virginia Press, 1969), 2:509–11; 2:195; 3:398–400.

  82. Joseph Douglas Deal III, Race and Class in Colonial Virginia: Indians, Englishmen, and Africans on the Eastern Shore during the Seventeenth Century (New York: Garland Press, 1993), chap. 3.

  83. Warren M. Billings, “A Quaker in Seventeenth-Century Virginia: Four Remonstrances by George Wilson,” William and Mary Quarterly, 3d ser., 33 (1976): 127–40.

  84. “An Account of Our Late Troubles in Virginia, Written in 1676, by Mrs. An. Cotton, of Q. Creeke,” in Peter Force, ed., Tracts and Other Papers Relating Principally to the Origin, Settlement, and Progress of the Colonies in North America, from the Discovery of the Country to the Year 1776 (1836; reprint, Gloucester, Mass.: Peter Smith, 1963).

  85. Strange News from Virginia; Beinga Full and True Account of the Life and Death of Nathanael Bacon, Esquire (London, 1677).

  86. “A True Narrative of the Late Rebellion in Virginia, by the Royal Commissioners,” in Charles M. Andrews, ed., Narratives of the Insurrections, 1675–1690 (New York: Charles Scribner’s Sons, 1915), 140.

  87. Aphra Behn, The Widow Ranter (1690).

  88. “Defense of Col. Edward Hill,” Virginia Magazine of History and Biography 3 (1895–96): 239; Archives of Maryland (Baltimore: Maryland Historical Society, 1885), 15:137; 5:153–54; 281–82; Notley to Baltimore, Chalmers Collection, Papers Relating to Virginia, vol. 1, f. 50; William Berkeley to Colonel Mason, 4 November 1676, William and Mary Quarterly 3 (1894–95): 163; in Andrews, ed., Narratives of the Insurrections, 31.

  89. Riva Berleant-Schiller, “Free Labor and the Economy in Seventeenth-Century Montserrat,” William and Mary Quarterly, 3d ser., 46 (1989): 550; Richard S. Dunn, Sugar and Slaves: The Rise of the Planter Class in the English West Indies 1624–1713 (Chapel Hill, N.C.: University of North Carolina Press, 1972), 244.

  90. Planters in Antigua (1677), St. Kitts (1679), Barbados (1682, 1688, 1696), Montserrat (1693), South Carolina (1698), Nevis (1701), and Jamaica (1672, 1701, 1703) sought to privilege the servant, who was becoming a protector rather than a producer of property. David W. Galenson, White Servitude in Colonial America: An Economic Analysis (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1986), 154; K. G. Davies, The North Atlantic World in the Seventeenth Century (Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press, 1974), 98.

  91. Hening, Laws of Virginia, 2:481–82, 492–93; 3:447–62. See also Kathleen M. Brown, Good Wives, Nasty Wenches, and Anx
ious Patriarchs: Gender, Race and Power in Colonial Virginia (Chapel Hill, N.C.: University of North Carolina Press, 1996), part 2.

  92. Hugo Prospero Learning, Hidden Americans: Maroons of Virginia and the Carolinas (New York: Garland, 1995), xv, 35, 48, 51, 68–71, 109, 116, 125; Hugh F. Rankin, Upheaval in Albemarle: The Story of Culpeper’s Rebellion (Raleigh, N.C.: The Carolina Charter Tercentenary Commission, 1962), 10, 35, 40–41, 55; “Representation to the Lords Proprietors of Carolina Concerning the Rebellion in that Country,” in William L. Saunders, ed., The Colonial Records of North Carolina (Raleigh, N.C.: P. M. Hale, 1886), 1:259, 261; Sir Peter Colleton, “The Case [of] Thomas Miller,” in Andrews, ed., Narratives of the Insurrections, 152–56; Virginia General Assembly to Sir Joseph Williamson, 2 April 1677, Virginia Magazine of History and Biography 14 (1906–7), 286.

  93. True Levellers Standard Advanced (1649) and A Watch Word to the City of London (1649).

  94. Christopher Hill, introduction to Winstanley: The Law of Freedom and Other Writings (London: Penguin, 1973), 35.

  95. R. J. Dalton, “Winstanley: The Experience of Fraud, 1641,” The Historical Journal 34, no. 4 (1991): 973.

  96. Ibid., 983.

  97. A Declaration from the Poor oppressed People of England (June 1649).

  98. Truth Lifting Up Its Head (October 1648).

  99. Ibid.

  100. The pause in economic development or democratic practice in England has long been noticed—e.g., by Gooch, Brailsford, Thompson, Orwell, Hobsbawm, and Anderson.

  101. Truth Lifting Up Its Head (October 1648), s. 101, and The New Law of Righteousness (1649), s. 169.

  Chapter Five

  1. Richard Brathwaite, Whimzies (London, 1631), quoted in Christopher Lloyd, The British Seaman, 1200–1860: A Social Survey (Rutherford, N.J.: Fairleigh Dickinson University Press, 1970), 74.

  2. Bernard Capp, Cromwell’s Navy: The Fleet and the English Revolution, 1648–1660 (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1989), 42, 58, 66, 72, 396; L. A. Wilcox, Mr. Pepys’ Navy (New York: A. S. Barnes and Co., 1966), 77.

  3. Capp, Cromwell’s Navy, 76; Lawrence A. Harper, The English Navigation Laws (New York: Columbia University Press, 1939), 38, 48–49, 53, 57, 60, 341; Ralph Davis, The Rise of the English Shipping Industry in the Seventeenth and Eighteenth Centuries (London: Macmillan, 1962), 17–20.