by Sven Beckert
30. Sundström, Trade of Guinea, 156, 157; Ramaswamy, Textiles, 25, 70–72; Chaudhuri, “Organisation,” 55; Inalcik, “Ottoman State,” 352; Mann, Cotton Trade, 2–3, 23; Smith and Cothren, Cotton, 68–69; Baines, History of the Cotton Manufacture, 24, 76; Wescher, “Die Baumwolle,” 1639; Gilroy, History of Silk, 321; John Peter Wild and Felicity Wild, “Rome and India: Early Indian Cotton Textiles from Berenike, Red Sea Coast of Egypt,” in Ruth Barnes, ed., Textiles in Indian Ocean Societies (New York: Routledge, 2005), 11–16; Surendra Gopal, Commerce and Crafts in Gujarat, 16th and 17th Centuries: A Study in the Impact of European Expansion on Precapitalist Economy (New Delhi: People’s Publishing House, 1975), 3; the quote on the Indo-Levant trade is in Inalcik, “Ottoman State,” 355, see also 350, 354, 355; Eliyahu Ashtor, “The Venetian Cotton Trade in Syria in the Later Middle Ages,” Studi Medievali, ser. 3, vol. 17 (1976): 690; Suraiya Faroqhi, “Crisis and Change, 1590–1699,” in Inalcik and Quataert, eds., An Economic and Social History of the Ottoman Empire, 524; Eugen Wirt, “Aleppo im 19. Jahrhundert,” in Hans Geord Majer, ed., Osmanische Studien zur Wirtschafts- und Sozialgeschichte (Wiesbaden: Otto Harrassowitz, 1986), 186–205; Sinopoli, Political Economy, 179.
31. Crawford, Heritage, 6, 69; Reid, Southeast Asia, 90, 95; in Sinnappah Arasaratnam and Aniruddha Ray, Masulipatnam and Cambay: A History of Two Port-Towns, 1500–1800 (New Delhi: Munshiram Manoharlal Publishers, 1994), 121; for some informative maps on Gujarat’s overseas trade as well as its domestic trade during this period, see Gopal, Commerce and Crafts, 16, 80, 160; Mazzaoui, Italian Cotton, 9–11; Beverly Lemire, “Revising the Historical Narrative: India, Europe, and the Cotton Trade, c. 1300–1800,” in Riello and Parthasarathi, eds., The Spinning World, 226.
32. B. C. Allen, Eastern Bengal District Gazetteers: Dacca (Allahabad: Pioneer Press, 1912), 106; Sinopoli, Political Economy, 186; Baines, History of the Cotton Manufacture, 75; Ramaswamy, Textiles, 44, 53, 55; Wiens, “Cotton Textile,” 522, 528; Yueksel Duman, “Notables, Textiles and Copper in Ottoman Tokat, 1750–1840” (PhD dissertation, State University of New York at Binghamton, 1998); Mazzaoui, Italian Cotton, 22; Max Freiherr von Oppenheim, Der Tell Halaf: Eine neue Kultur im ältesten Mesopotamien (Leipzig: Brockhaus, 1931), 70; Sundström, Trade of Guinea, 147; Lamb and Holmes, Nigerian Weaving, 10; Curtin, Economic Change, 48; Aka, Production, 69; Youssoupha Mbargane Guissé, “Ecrire l’histoire économique des artisans et createurs de l’Afrique de l’Ouest” (presentation, Université Cheikh Anta Diop, Dakar, Senegal, December 2011); Hauser, Economic Institutional Change, 20–30.
33. Chaudhuri, “Organisation,” 49, 51, 53; Hameeda Hossain, “The Alienation of Weavers: Impact of the Conflict Between the Revenue and Commercial Interests of the East India Company, 1750–1800,” in Roy, ed., Cloth and Commerce, 117; Suraiya Faroqhi, “Notes on the Production of Cotton and Cotton Cloth in Sixteenth- and Seventeenth-Century Anatolia,” in Huri Islamoglu-Inan, ed., The Ottoman Empire and the World-Economy (New York: Cambridge University Press, 1987), 267, 268; Inalcik, “Ottoman State”; Huri Islamoglu-Inan, State and Peasant in the Ottoman Empire: Agrarian Power Relations and Regional Economic Development in Ottoman Anatolia During the Sixteenth Century (Leiden: E. J. Brill, 1994), 223, 235; Socrates D. Petmezas, “Patterns of Protoindustrialization in the Ottoman Empire: The Case of Eastern Thessaly, ca. 1750–1860,” Journal of European Economic History (1991): 589; Prasannan Parthasarathi, “Merchants and the Rise of Colonialism,” in Burton Stein and Sanjay Subrahmanyam, eds., Institutions and Economic Change in South Asia (Delhi: Oxford University Press, 1996), 96, 98; S. Arasaratnam, “Weavers, Merchants and Company: The Handloom Industry in Southeastern India, 1750–90,” in Roy, ed., Cloth and Commerce, 87; Bray, “Textile Production,” 127.
34. Smith and Hirth, “Development of Prehispanic Cotton-Spinning,” 349; Angela Lakwete, Inventing the Cotton Gin: Machine and Myth in Antebellum America (Baltimore: John Hopkins University Press, 2005), 11–12; Mazzaoui, Italian Cotton, 74–82, 89; Smith and Hirth, “Development of Prehispanic Cotton-Spinning,” 354–55; John H. A. Munro, Textiles, Towns and Trade: Essays in the Economic History of Late-Medieval England and the Low Countries (Brookfield, VT: Variorum, 1994), 8, 15; Maureen Fennell Mazzaoui, “The Cotton Industry of Northern Italy in the Late Middle Ages, 1150–1450,” Journal of Economic History 32 (1972): 274.
35. Alan L. Olmstead and Paul W. Rhode, Creating Abundance: Biological Innovation and American Agricultural Development (New York: Cambridge University Press, 2008), 108–9; John Hebron Moore, “Cotton Breeding in the Old South,” Agricultural History 30, no. 3 (July 1956): 95–104; John Hebron Moore, Agriculture in Ante-Bellum Mississippi (New York: Bookman Associates, 1958), 13–36, 97; Lewis Cecil Gray, History of Agriculture in the Southern United States to 1860, vol. 2 (Washington, DC: Carnegie Institution of Washington, 1933), 689–90; James Lawrence Watkins, King Cotton: A Historical and Statistical Review, 1790 to 1908 (New York: J. L. Watkins, 1908), 13; Bassett, Peasant Cotton, 33; Mazzaoui, Italian Cotton, 20–21; Bulliet, Cotton, Climate, and Camels, 40; Chaudhuri, “Organisation,” 75.
36. Mahatma Gandhi, The Indian Cotton Textile Industry: Its Past, Present and Future (Calcutta: G. N. Mitra, 1930), 6.
37. As quoted in Henry Lee, The Vegetable Lamb of Tartary: A Curious Fable of the Cotton Plant (London: Sampson Low, Marston, Searle, & Rivington, 1887), 5.
38. Mann, Cotton Trade, 5; Oppel, Die Baumwolle, 39; see also exhibits at Museu Tèxtil i d’Indumentària, Barcelona, Spain.
39. That the Crusades were crucial to the introduction of the cotton textile industry into Europe is confirmed by “Baumwolle,” entry in Lexikon des Mittelalters, vol. 1 (Munich: Artemis Verlag, 1980), 1670.
40. Alfred P. Wadsworth and Julia De Lacy Mann, The Cotton Trade and Industrial Lancashire, 1600–1780 (Manchester: Manchester University Press, 1931), 15; Mazzaoui, “Cotton Industry,” 263; Ashtor, “Venetian Cotton,” 677.
41. During the twelfth century, cotton manufacturing arose in places such as southern France, Catalonia, and, most significantly, northern Italy. See Mazzaoui, “Cotton Industry,” 268; Wescher, “Die Baumwolle,” 1643, 1644; Mazzaoui, Italian Cotton, 114.
42. Mazzaoui, Italian Cotton, 64, 66, 69; Mazzaoui, “Cotton Industry,” 271, 273, 276; Wescher, “Die Baumwolle,” 1643.
43. Mazzaoui, Italian Cotton, 7, 29, 63; Mazzaoui, “Cotton Industry,” 265.
44. Mazzaoui, Italian Cotton, 53; Ashtor, “Venetian Cotton,” 675, 676, 697; Mazzaoui, Italian Cotton, 35.
45. Mazzaoui, Italian Cotton, 65–66, 74–82, 89; Lakwete, Inventing the Cotton Gin, 11–12; Mazzaoui, “Cotton Industry,” 274, 275; Bohnsack, Spinnen und Weben, 65–66, 37, 63, 67, 114, 115; Karl-Heinz Ludwig, “Spinnen im Mittelalter unter besonderer Berücksichtigung der Arbeiten‚ cum rota,” Technikgeschichte 57 (1990): 78; Eric Broudy, The Book of Looms: A History of the Handloom from Ancient Times to the Present (Hanover, NH: Brown University Press, 1979), 102; Munro, Textiles, 8, 15.
46. Mazzaoui, Italian Cotton, xi, 29.
47. Mazzaoui, Italian Cotton, 139, 144, 150, 152; Mazzaoui, “Cotton Industry,” 282, 284; Wolfgang von Stromer, Die Gründung der Baumwollindustrie in Mitteleuropa (Stuttgart: Hiersemann, 1978), 84–86; Eugen Nübling, Ulms Baumwollweberei im Mittelalter (Leipzig: Duncker & Humblot, 1890), 146.
48. Von Stromer, Die Gründung, 32; Götz Freiherr von Poelnitz, Die Fugger (Tübingen: J. C. B. Mohr, 1981); Richard Ehrenberg, Capital and Finance in the Age of the Renaissance: A Study of the Fuggers and Their Connections, trans. H. M. Lucas (New York: Harcourt, 1928).
49. Von Stromer, Die Gründung, 1, 2, 8, 21, 128, 139, 148; Nübling, Ulms Baumwollweberei, 141; Bohnsack, Spinnen und Weben, 152.
50. Mazzaoui, Italian Cotton, 141; Von Stromer, Die Gründung, 88.
51. Mazzaoui, Italian Cotton, 55, 54, 154; Wadsworth and Mann, Cotton Trade, 23; Inalcik, “Ottoman State,” 365; Daniel Goffman, “Izmir: From Village to Colonial Port City,” in Edhem Eldem, Daniel Goffman, and Bruce Masters, eds.,
The Ottoman City Between East and West: Aleppo, Izmir, and Istanbul (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1999), 79–134.
52. Nübling, Ulms Baumwollweberei, 166.
CHAPTER TWO: BUILDING WAR CAPITALISM
1. I am using the term “network” here instead of “system” or “world system” because I want to emphasize the continued importance of local distributions of social, economic, and political power to shaping the nature of the connections between various parts of the world. In this I am inspired by Gil J. Stein, Rethinking World-Systems: Diasporas, Colonies, and Interaction in Uruk Mesopotamia (Tucson: University of Arizona Press, 1999), especially 171.
2. Om Prakash, The New Cambridge History of India, vol. 2, European Commercial Enterprise in Pre-Colonial India (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1998), 23; Surendra Gopal, Commerce and Crafts in Gujarat, 16th and 17th Centuries: A Study in the Impact of European Expansion on Precapitalist Economy (New Delhi: People’s Publishing House, 1975), 10–11, 18, 26, 28, 58.
3. Céline Cousquer, Nantes: Une capitale française des Indiennes au XVIIIe siècle (Nantes: Coiffard Editions, 2002), 17.
4. Sinnappah Arasaratnam, “Weavers, Merchants and Company: The Handloom Industry in Southeastern India, 1750–90,” in Tirthankar Roy, ed., Cloth and Commerce: Textiles in Colonial India (Walnut Creek, CA: AltaMira Press, 1996), 90; James Mann, The Cotton Trade of Great Britain (London: Simpkin, Marshall & Co., 1860), 2; Walter R. Cassels, Cotton: An Account of Its Culture in the Bombay Presidency (Bombay: Bombay Education Society’s Press, 1862), 77; Beverly Lemire, Fashion’s Favourite: The Cotton Trade and the Consumer in Britain, 1660–1800 (Oxford: Pasold Research Fund, 1991), 15; Hameeda Hossain, The Company Weavers of Bengal: The East India Company and the Organization of Textile Production in Bengal, 1750–1813 (Delhi: Oxford University Press, 1988), 65; Proceeding, Bombay Castle, November 10, 1776, in Bombay Commercial Proceedings, P/414, 47, Oriental and India Office Collections, British Library, London; Stephen Broadberry and Bishnupriya Gupta, “Cotton Textiles and the Great Divergence: Lancashire, India and Shifting Competitive Advantage, 1600–1850,” CEPR Discussion Paper No. 5183, London, Centre for Economic Policy Research, August 2005, Table 3, p. 32; Daniel Defoe and John McVeagh, A Review of the State of the British Nation, vol. 4, 1707–08 (London: Pickering & Chatto, 2006), 606.
5. See for example Factory Records, Dacca, 1779, Record Group G 15, col. 21 (1779), in Oriental and India Office Collections, British Library, London; John Irwin and P. R. Schwartz, Studies in Indo-European Textile History (Ahmedabad: Calico Museum of Textiles, 1966).
6. K. N. Chaudhuri, “European Trade with India,” in The Cambridge Economic History of India, vol. 1, c. 1200–c. 1750 (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1982), 405–6; Arasaratnam, “Weavers, Merchants and Company,” 92, 94; Copy of the Petition of Dadabo Monackjee, Contractor for the Investment anno 1779, in Factory Records, G 36 (Surat), 58, Oriental and India Office Collections, British Library, London; Cousquer, Nantes, 31.
7. Hameeda Hossain, “The Alienation of Weavers: Impact of the Conflict Between the Revenue and Commercial Interests of the East India Company, 1750–1800,” in Roy, ed., Cloth and Commerce, 119, 117; Atul Chandra Pradhan, “British Trade in Cotton Goods and the Decline of the Cotton Industry in Orissa,” in Nihar Ranjan Patnaik, ed., Economic History of Orissa (New Delhi: Indus Publishing Co., 1997), 244; Arasaratnam, “Weavers, Merchants and Company,” 90; Shantha Hariharan, Cotton Textiles and Corporate Buyers in Cottonopolis: A Study of Purchases and Prices in Gujarat, 1600–1800 (Delhi: Manak Publications, 2002), 49.
8. Memorandum of the Method of Providing Cloth at Dacca, 1676, in Factory Records, Miscellaneous, vol. 26, Oriental and India Office Collections, British Library, London.
9. Minutes of the Commercial Proceedings at Bombay Castle, April 15, 1800, in Minutes of Commercial Proceedings at Bombay Castle from April 15, 1800, to December 31, 1800, in Bombay Commercial Proceedings, P/414, Box 66, Oriental and India Office Collections, British Library, London; Copy of the Petition of Dadabo Monackjee, 1779, Factory Records Surat, 1780, Box 58, record G 36 (Surat), Oriental and India Office Collections, British Library; Report of John Taylor on the Cotton Textiles of Dacca, Home Miscellaneous Series, 456, p. 91, Oriental and India Office Collections, British Library; Lakshmi Subramanian, Indigenous Capital and Imperial Expansion: Bombay, Surat and the West Coast (Delhi: Oxford University Press, 1996), 15.
10. John Styles, “What Were Cottons for in the Early Industrial Revolution?” in Giorgio Riello and Prasannan Parthasarathi, eds., The Spinning World: A Global History of Cotton Textiles, 1200–1850 (New York: Oxford University Press, 2009), 307–26; Halil Inalcik, “The Ottoman State: Economy and Society, 1300–1600,” in Halil Inalcik and Donald Quataert, eds., An Economic and Social History of the Ottoman Empire, 1300–1914 (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1994), 354; Pedro Machado, “Awash in a Sea of Cloth: Gujarat, Africa and the Western Indian Ocean Trade, 1300– 1800,” in Riello and Parthasarasi, The Spinning World, 169; Subramanian, Indigenous Capital, 4.
11. Maureen Fennell Mazzaoui, The Italian Cotton Industry in the Later Middle Ages, 1100–1600 (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1981), 157.
12. “Assessing the Slave Trade,” The Trans-Atlantic Slave Trade Database, accessed April 5, 2013, http://www.slavevoyages.org/tast/assessment/estimates.faces.
13. David Richardson, “West African Consumption Patterns and Their Influence on the Eighteenth-Century English Slave Trade,” in Henry A. Gemery and Jan S. Hogendorn, eds., The Uncommon Market: Essays in the Economic History of the Atlantic Slave Trade (New York: Academic Press, 1979), 304; Joseph C. Miller, “Imports at Luanda, Angola 1785–1823,” in G. Liesegang, H. Pasch, and A. Jones, eds., Figuring African Trade: Proceedings of the Symposium on the Quantification and Structure of the Import and Export and Long-Distance Trade in Africa 1800–1913 (Berlin: Reimer, 1986), 164, 192; George Metcalf, “A Microcosm of Why Africans Sold Slaves: Akan Consumption Patterns in the 1770s,” Journal of African History 28, no. 3 (January 1, 1987): 378–80.
14. Harry Hamilton Johnston, The Kilima-Njaro Expedition: A Record of Scientific Exploration in Eastern Equatorial Africa (London: Kegan, Paul, Trench & Co., 1886), 45; the European traveler is quoted in Jeremy Prestholdt, “On the Global Repercussions of East African Consumerism,” American Historical Review 109, no. 3 (June 1, 2004): 761, 765; Robert Harms, The Diligent: A Voyage Through the Worlds of the Slave Trade (New York: Basic Books, 2002), 81; Miles to Shoolbred, 25 July 1779, T70/1483, National Archives of the UK, Kew, as quoted in Metcalf, “A Microcosm of Why Africans Sold Slaves,” 388.
15. See also Carl Wennerlind, Casualties of Credit: The English Financial Revolution, 1620–1720 (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 2011); Adam Smith, An Inquiry into the Nature and Causes of the Wealth of Nations, bk. IV, ch. VII, pt. II, vol. II, Edwin Cannan, ed. (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1976), 75.
16. Mazzaoui, Italian Cotton, 162; Alfred P. Wadsworth and Julia De Lacy Mann, The Cotton Trade and Industrial Lancashire, 1600–1780 (Manchester: Manchester University Press, 1931), 116; Mann, The Cotton Trade of Great Britain, 5; Wolfgang von Stromer, Die Gründung der Baumwollindustrie in Mitteleuropa (Stuttgart: Hiersemann, 1978), 28; H. Wescher, “Die Baumwolle im Altertum,” in Ciba-Rundschau 45 (June 1940): 1644–45.
17. Wadsworth and Mann, The Cotton Trade, 11, 15, 19, 21, 72.
18. Ibid., 4, 5, 27, 29, 42, 55, 73. Wool manufacturing had pioneered this move into the European countryside. See Herman van der Wee, “The Western European Woolen Industries, 1500–1750,” in David Jenkins, The Cambridge History of Western Textiles (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2003), 399.
19. Wadsworth and Mann, The Cotton Trade, 36.
20. Mann, The Cotton Trade of Great Britain, 6; Edward Baines, History of the Cotton Manufacture in Great Britain (London: Fisher, Fisher and Jackson, 1835), 109; Bernard Lepetit, “Frankreich, 1750–1850,” in Wolfram Fischer et al., eds, Handbuch der Europ
äischen Wirtschafts- und Sozialgeschichte, vol. 4 (Stuttgart: Klett-Verlag für Wissen und Bildung, 1993), 487.
21. Wadsworth and Mann, The Cotton Trade, 187.
22. For an overview of that trade see Elena Frangakis-Syrett, “Trade Between the Ottoman Empire and Western Europe: The Case of Izmir in the Eighteenth Century,” New Perspectives on Turkey 2 (1988): 1–18; Baines, History of the Cotton Manufacture, 304; Mann, The Cotton Trade of Great Britain, 23. Ellison wrongly asserts that “down to about twenty years before the close of the last century the cotton imported into Great Britain came almost entirely from the Mediterranean, chiefly from Smyrna”; see Thomas Ellison, The Cotton Trade of Great Britain: Including a History of the Liverpool Cotton Market (London and Liverpool: Effingham Wilson, 1886), 81. On Thessaloniki see Nicolas Svoronos, Le commerce de Salonique au XVIIIe siècle (Paris: Presses Universitaires de France, 1956); Manchester Cotton Supply Association, Cotton Culture in New or Partially Developed Sources of Supply: Report of Proceedings (Manchester: Cotton Supply Association, 1862), 30, as quoted in Oran Kurmus, “The Cotton Famine and Its Effects on the Ottoman Empire,” in Huri Islamoglu-Inan, ed., The Ottoman Empire and the World-Economy (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1987), 161; Resat Kasaba, The Ottoman Empire and the World Economy: The Nineteenth Century (Albany: State University of New York Press, 1988), 21. For general background see also Bruce McGowan, Economic Life in Ottoman Europe: Taxation, Trade and the Struggle for Land, 1600–1800 (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1981).
23. Wadsworth and Mann, The Cotton Trade, 183; “Allotment of goods to be sold by the Royal African Company of England,” Treasury Department, T 70/1515, National Archives of the UK, Kew.
24. Wadsworth and Mann, The Cotton Trade, 186; Lowell Joseph Ragatz, Statistics for the Study of British Caribbean Economic History, 1763–1833 (London: Bryan Edwards Press, 1927), 22; Lowell Joseph Ragatz, The Fall of the Planter Class in the British Caribbean (New York: Century Co., 1928), 39.
