by Sven Beckert
32. See, for example, Ernst Henrici, “Die wirtschaftliche Nutzbarmachung des Togogebietes,” Der Tropenpflanzer: Zeitschrift für tropische Landwirtschaft 3 (July 1899): 320; Sven Beckert, “Emancipation and Empire: Reconstructing the Worldwide Web of Cotton Production in the Age of the American Civil War,” American Historical Review 109, no. 5 (December 2004): 1427; C. A. Bayly, The Birth of the Modern World, 1780–1914: Global Connections and Comparisons (Malden, MA: Blackwell, 2004), 161–65; Kaiserliches Statistisches Amt, Statistisches Jahrbuch für das Deutsche Reich, vol. 15 (Berlin: n.p., 1894), 45; Kaiserliches Statistisches Amt, Statistisches Jahrbuch für das Deutsche Reich, vol. 20 (Berlin: n.p., 1899), 91.
33. R. Hennings, “Der Baumwollkulturkampf,” in Zeitschrift für Kolonialpolitik, Kolonialrecht und Kolonialwirtschaft, vol. 7 (1905), 906–14; Sunseri, “Baumwollfrage,” 32; “Die Arbeit des Kolonial-Wirtschaftlichen Komitees, 1896–1914,” file 579, record group R 150F, Fonds Allemand 1, Papers of the Administration of the German Protectorate Togo (L’Administration du Protectorat Allemand du Togo), Archives Nationales du Togo, Lomé, microfilm copy in Bundesarchiv, Berlin; Sunseri, “Baumwollfrage,” 49; on German demand for colonial cotton see also Verband Deutscher Baumwollgarn-Verbraucher an v. Lindequist, Reichskolonialamt, Dresden, October 22, 1910, file 8224, record group R 1001, Papers of the Deutsche Kolonialgesellschaft, Bundesarchiv, Berlin.
34. Buehler, “Die Unabhälgigkeitsbestrebungen,” 23, 39; Biedermann, “Die Versorg-ung,” 9; Bericht der Handelskammer in Bremen für das Jahr 1904 an den Kaufmannskonvent (Bremen: H. M. Hausschild, 1905), 30.
35. Department of Finance, 1920, Annual Return of the Foreign Trade of the Empire of Japan, Part I (Tokyo: n.p., n.d.), 397; Buehler, “Die Unabhängigkeitsbestrebungen,” 31; Supf, “Zur Baumwollfrage,” 8.
36. Supf, “Zur Baumwollfrage,” 4–6, 8; E. Henrici, “Der Baumwollbau in den deutschen Kolonien,” Der Tropenpflanzer: Zeitschrift für tropische Landwirtschaft 3 (November 1899): 535–36. On Henrici see Herrmann A. L. Degener, Unsere Zeitgenossen, Wer Ist’s?: Biographien nebst Bibliographien (Leipzig: n.p., 1911); calls for economic autarky are also reflected in “Einleitung,” Beihefte Zum Tropenpflanzer 16, no. 1/2 (February 1916): 1–3, 71–73, 175–77; Karl Helfferich, “Die Baumwollfrage: Ein Weltwirtschaftliches Problem,” Marine-Rundschau 15 (1904): 652; Karl Supf, “Bericht IV, Deutsch-Koloniale Baumwoll-Unternehmungen, 1903–1904” (1904), reprinted in Der Tropenpflanzer: Zeitschrift für tropische Landwirtschaft 8 (December 1904): 615; “Die Arbeit des Kolonial-Wirtschaftlichen Komitees, 1896–1914.”
37. Sunseri, “Baumwollfrage,” 33; O. F. Metzger, Unsere Alte Kolonie Togo (Neudamm: Neumann, 1941), 242; “Bericht über den Baumwollbau in Togo,” enclosure in Kaiserliches Gouvernement Togo, Gouverneur Zech to Reichskolonialamt Berlin, November 23, 1909, 1, 8223, record group R 1001, Papers of the Deutsche Kolonialgesellschaft, Bundesarchiv, Berlin; “Der Baumwollbau in Togo, Seine Bisherige Entwicklung, und sein jetziger Stand,” undated draft of an article, 8224, record group R 1001, Papers of the Deutsche Kolonialgesellschaft, Bundesarchiv, Berlin, [illegible] to von Bismark, March 26, 1890, file 8220, record group R 1001, Papers of the Deutsche Kolonialgesellschaft, Bundesarchiv, Berlin; Tony Smith, Pattern of Imperialism: The United States, Great Britain, and the Late-Industrializing World Since 1815 (New York: Cambridge University Press, 1981), 15, 35; Eric Hobsbawm, The Age of Empire, 1875–1914 (New York: Pantheon, 1987), 34–55; Isaacman and Roberts, “Cotton, Colonialism,” in Isaacman and Roberts, eds., Cotton, Colonialism, 8–9; Leroy Vail and Landeg White, “ ‘Tawani, Machambero!’: Forced Cotton and Rice Growing on the Zambezi,” Journal of African History 19, no. 2 (1978): 244.
38. Kendahl Radcliffe, “The Tuskegee-Togo Cotton Scheme, 1900–1909” (PhD dissertation, University of California, Los Angeles, 1998), 16; on Ferdinand Goldberg see “Baumwollen- und sonstige Kulturen im Togo-Gebiet,” Deutsches Kolonialblatt 2 (1891): 320–21; more generally on German interests in colonial cotton see Donna J. E. Maier, “Persistence of Precolonial Patterns of Production: Cotton in German Togoland, 1800–1914,” in Isaacman and Roberts, eds., Cotton, Colonialism, 81; Peter Sebald, Togo 1884–1914: Eine Geschichte der deutschen “Musterkolonie” auf der Grund-lage amtlicher Quellen (Berlin: Akademie-Verlag, 1988), 433; for a more complete rendering of this story see Sven Beckert, “From Tuskegee to Togo: The Problem of Freedom in the Empire of Cotton, Journal of American History 92 (September 2005),” 498–526; for a list of these plantations see Kolonial-Wirtschaftliches Komitee to Handelskammer Bremen, Berlin, July 23, 1913, in “Baumwollterminhandel,” record group W II, 3, Handelskammer Bremen, Bremen, Germany; Sunseri, Vilimani, 1–25; Gerhard Bleifuss and Gerhard Hergenröder, Die “Otto-Plantage Kilossa” (1907–1914): Aufbau und Ende eines kolonialen Unternehmens in Deutsch-Ostafrika (Wendlingen: Schriftenreihe zur Stadtgeschichte, 1993), 43, 59.
39. “Encouragement pour la Culture aux colonies, du cotton etc. (1906–1908),” 9 AFFECO, Affairs Économique, Archives d’outre-mer, Aix-en-Provence; for the quote, see Reseignements sur la Culture du Coton, 1917, in 9 AFFECO, Affairs Économique, Archives d’outre-mer; Marie Philiponeau, Le coton et l’Islam: Fil d’une histoire africaine (Algiers: Casbah Editions, 2009), 114; Thomas J. Bassett, The Peasant Cotton Revolution in West Africa: Côte d’Ivoire, 1880–1995 (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2001), 51, 52; Richard Roberts, “The Coercion of Free Markets: Cotton, Peasants, and the Colonial State in the French Soudan, 1924–1932,” in Isaacman and Roberts, eds., Cotton, Colonialism, 222; Vail and White, “Tawani, Machambero,” 241; League of Nations, Economic Intelligence Service, Statistical Year-book of the League of Nations 1930/31 (Geneva: Series of League of Nations Publications, 1931), 108, accessed August 3, 2009, http://digital.library.northwestern.edu/league/le0267ag.pdf; A. Brixhe, Le coton au Congo Belge (Bruxelles: Direction de l’agriculture, des forêts et de l’élevage du Ministère des colonies, 1953), 13, 15, 19; Secretary of the Interior, Agriculture of the United States in 1860: Compiled from the Original Returns of the Eighth Census (Washington, DC: Government Printing Office, 1864), 185, accessed May 25, 2009, http://www.agcensus.usda.gov/Publications/Historical_Publications/1860/1860b-08.pdf.
40. Hutton, as quoted in Robins, “The Black Man’s Crop,” 15; Cyril Ehrlich, “The Marketing of Cotton in Uganda, 1900–1950: A Case Study of Colonial Government Economic Policy” (PhD dissertation, University of London, 1958), 12, 13; Buehler, “Die Unabhängigkeitsbestrebungen,” 122; British Cotton Growing Association, Second Annual Report, for the Year Ending August 31st, 1906 (Manchester: Head Office, 1906), 23; on the British Cotton Growing Association see Robins, “The Black Man’s Crop”; British Cotton Growing Association, Second Annual Report, for the Year Ending August 31st, 1906, 32; League of Nations, Economic Intelligence Service, Statistical Year-book of the League of Nations 1930/31 (Geneva: Series of League of Nations Publications, 1931), 108; Secretary of the Interior, Agriculture of the United States in 1860: Compiled from the Original Returns of the Eighth Census (Washington, DC: Government Printing Office, 1864), 185, accessed May 25, 2009, http://www.agcensus.usda.gov/Publications/Historical_Publications/1860/1860b-08.pdf.
41. Josef Partsch, ed., Geographie des Welthandels (Breslau: Hirt, 1927), 209; B. R. Mitchell, International Historical Statistics: The Americas, 1750–1993 (Basingstoke, UK: Macmillan, 2007), 222, 224, 227, 228; John A. Todd, The World’s Cotton Crops (London: A. & C. Black, 1915), 395ff. 421; Heinrich Kuhn, Die Baumwolle: Ihre Cultur, Structur und Verbreitung (Wien: Hartleben, 1892), 69; John C. Branner, Cotton in the Empire of Brazil; The Antiquity, Methods and Extent of Its Cultivation; Together with Statistics of Exportation and Home Consumption (Washington, DC: Government Printing Office, 1885), 23–27; National Association of Cotton Manufacturers, The Year Book of the National Association of Cotton Manufacturers and Cotton Manufacturers Manual (1922), 83, accessed August 3, 2009, http://ia311228.us.archive.org/1/items/yearbookofnation1922nati/yearbookofnation1922nati.pdf; International Institute of Agri
culture, Statistical Bureau, The Cotton-Growing Countries: Production and Trade (Rome: International Institute of Agriculture, 1922), 127; League of Nations, Economic Intelligence Service, Statistical Year-book of the League of Nations 1939/40 (Geneva: Series of League of Nations Publications, 1940), 122; United Nations, Department for Economic and Social Affairs, Statistics Division, Statistical Yearbook, vol. 4 (New York: Department of Economic and Social Affairs, Statistical Office, United Nations, 1952), 72; United States Department of Agriculture, Foreign Agricultural Service, Table 04 Cotton Area, Yield, and Production, accessed August 3, 2009, http://www.fas.usda.gov/psdonline/psdReport.aspx?hidReportRetrievalName=Table+04+Cotton+Area%2c+Yield%2c+and+Production&hidReportRetrievalID=851&hidReportRetrievalTemplateID=1; Biedermann, “Die Versorgung,” 3.
42. Revue des cultures coloniales 12–13 (1903): 302.
43. For Central Asia, see for example Richard A. Pierce, Russian Central Asia, 1867–1917: A Study in Colonial Rule (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1960), 135–36; Toksöz, “Çukurova,” 1, 13, 37, 79; Osterhammel, Kolonialismus, 17ff.
44. Nebol’sin, Ocherki torgovli Rossii, 25; Kostenko, Sredniaia Aziia, 213.
45. Nebol’sin, Ocherki torgovli Rossii, 25; Rozhkova, Ekonomicheskiie, 68; Whitman, “Turkestan Cotton,” 199, 200; Schanz, “Die Baumwolle,” 88, 368; Biedermann, “Die Versorgung,” 72; Sahadeo, “Cultures,” 3.
46. Biedermann, “Die Versorgung,” 45, 46, 59.
47. Handelsbericht des Kaiserlichen Konsulats für das Jahr 1909, in Deutsches Handels-Archiv, Zweiter Teil: Berichte über das Ausland, Jahrgang 1911 (Berlin: Ernst Siegfried Mittler und Sohn, 1911), 168; Whitman, “Turkestan Cotton,” 200; Biedermann, “Die Versorgung,” 70; Schanz, “Die Baumwolle,” 10, 50.
48. Whitman, “Turkestan Cotton,” 200, 203; Schanz, “Die Baumwolle,” 131.
49. “British and Russian Commercial Competition in Central Asia,” Asiatic Quarterly Review (London) 7 (January–April 1889): 439; Whitman, “Turkestan Cotton,” 202; E. Z. Volkov, Dinamika narodonaselenija SSSR za vosem’desjat let (Moscow: Gos. izd., 1930), 40, 198–99, 208.
50. Kolonial-Wirtschaftliches Komitee, Baumwoll-Expedition, 4; the following pages are based on and make extensive use of materials in Beckert, “From Tuskegee to Togo.” See also James N. Calloway to Booker T. Washington, November 20, 1900, Booker T. Washington Papers, Manuscripts Division, Library of Congress, Washington, DC; Kolonial-Wirtschaftliches Komitee to Washington, October 10, 1900, and December 11, 1900, Booker T. Washington Papers. On the plans for the “Baumwoll-Expedition,” see also Kolonial-Wirtschaftliches Komitee, Antrag des Kolonialwirtschaftlichen Komitees auf Bewilligung eines Betrages von M 10,000.- zur Ausführung einer Baumwollexpedition nach Togo, Berlin, May 14, 1900, Oktober 1898–Oktober 1900, Band 2, Kolonial-Wirtschaftliches Komitee, File 594/K81, record group R 8023, Papers of the Deutsche Kolonialgesellschaft, Bundesarchiv, Berlin; on the episode see also Booker T. Washington, Workings with the Hands (New York: Doubleday, Page & Company, 1904), 226–30; Louis R. Harlan, “Booker T. Washington and the White Man’s Burden,” American Historical Review 71, no. 2 (January 1966): 441–67, 266–95; Edward Berman, “Tuskegee-in-Africa,” Journal of Negro Education 41, no. 2 (Spring 1972): 99–112; W. Manning Marable, “Booker T. Washington and African Nationalism,” Phylon 35, no. 4 (December 1974), 398–406; Michael O. West, “The Tuskegee Model of Development in Africa: Another Dimension of the African/African-American Connection,” Diplomatic History 16, no. 3 (Summer 1992): 371–87; Milfred C. Fierce, The Pan-African Idea in the United States, 1900–1919: African-American Interest in Africa and Interaction with West Africa (New York: Garland, 1993), 171–97; Maier, “Persistence,” 71–95; Radcliffe, “Tuskegee-Togo”; Andrew Zimmermann, Alabama in Africa: Booker T. Washington, the German Empire, and the Globalization of the New South (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 2012).
51. For an account of this change see Beckert, “Emancipation,” 1405–38.
52. Supf, “Zur Baumwollfrage,” 8; Kolonial-Wirtschaftliches Komitee, Baumwoll-Expedition, 3; see for a similar assessment Hutton, as quoted in Robins, “The Black Man’s Crop,” 4; see, for other examples of African Americans traveling to colonial cotton projects, Jonathan Robbins, “The Cotton Crisis: Globalization and Empire in the Atlantic World, 1901–1920” (PhD dissertation, University of Rochester, 2010), 220; Booker T. Washington to Beno von Herman auf Wain, September 20, 1900, Booker T. Washington Papers, Manuscripts Division, Library of Congress, Washington, DC.
53. For the Calloway quote see James N. Calloway to Washington, April 30, 1901, Booker T. Washington Papers, Manuscripts Division, Library of Congress, Washington, DC. See also James N. Calloway to Kolonial-Wirtschaftliches Komitee, 12 March 1901, file 8221, record group R 1001, Papers of the Deutsche Kolonialgesellschaft, Bundesarchiv, Berlin; M. B. K. Darkoh, “Togoland under the Germans: Thirty Years of Economic Development (1884–1914),” Nigerian Geographic Journal 10, no. 2 (1968): 112; James N. Calloway to Kolonial-Wirtschaftliches Komitee, February 3, 1901, file 8221, record group R 1001, Papers of the Deutsche Kolonialgesellschaft; James N. Calloway to Washington, February 3, 1901, Booker T. Washington Papers; James N. Calloway to Kolonial-Wirtschaftliches Komitee, May 14, 1901, file 8221, record group R 1001, Papers of the Deutsche Kolonialgesellschaft; this general point, in different contexts, is also made by Melissa Leach and James Fairhead, Misreading the African Landscape: Society and Ecology in a Forest-Savanna Mosaic (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1996); Kojo Sebastian Amanor, The New Frontier: Farmer Responses to Land Degradation: A West African Study (Geneva: UNRISD, 1994).
54. John Robinson to Booker T. Washington, May 26, 1901, Booker T. Washington Papers, Manuscripts Division, Library of Congress, Washington, DC; James N. Calloway to Kolonial-Wirtschaftliches Komitee, June 13, 1901, file 8221, record group R 1001, Papers of the Deutsche Kolonialgesellschaft, Bundesarchiv, Berlin; James N. Calloway to Mr. Schmidt, November 11, 1901, file 1008, record group R 150F, Fonds Allemand 3, Papers of the Administration of the German Protectorate Togo (L’Administration du Protectorat Allemand du Togo), Archives Nationales du Togo, Lomé, microfilm copy in Bundesarchiv, Berlin; James N. Calloway to Mr. Schmidt, November 11, 1901, file 1008, record group R 150F, Fonds Allemand 3, Papers of the Administration of the German Protectorate Togo; James N. Calloway to Kolonial-Wirtschaftliches Komitee, September 2, 1901, file 8221, record group R 1001, Papers of the Deutsche Kolonialgesellschaft; John Robinson to Booker T. Washington, May 26, 1901, Booker T. Washington Papers; James N. Calloway to Kolonial-Wirtschaftliches Komitee, March 12, 1901, file 8221, record group R 1001, Papers of the Deutsche Kolonialgesellschaft; eventually, one source reports that a full 105 men were involved in moving the wagons to the plantations; see Kolonial-Wirtschaftliches Komitee, Baumwoll-Expedition, 24.
55. Kolonial-Wirtschaftliches Komitee, Baumwoll-Expedition, 4–5, 26, for the Calloway quote see 28–36; F. Wohltmann, “Neujahrsgedanken 1905,” Der Tropenpflanzer: Zeitschrift für tropische Landwirtschaft 9 (January 1905): 5; Karl Supf, Kolonial-Wirtschaftliches Komitee, to Kolonial-Abteilung des Auswärtigen Amtes, Berlin, August 15, 1902, file 8221, record group R 1001, Papers of the Deutsche Kolonialgesellschaft, Bundesarchiv, Berlin.
56. Der Tropenpflanzer: Zeitschrift für tropische Landwirtschaft 7 (January 1903): 9.
57. Isaacman and Roberts, “Cotton, Colonialism,” 25; Kolonial-Wirtschaftliches Komitee, Deutsch-Koloniale Baumwoll-Unternehmungen, Bericht XI (Frühjahr 1909), 28, file 8224, record group R 1001, Papers of the Deutsche Kolonialgesellschaft, Bundes-archiv, Berlin; Sunseri, “Baumwollfrage,” 46, 48; Kolonial-Wirtschaftliches Komitee, “Verhandlungen der Baumwoll-Kommission des Kolonial-Wirtschaftlichen Komitees vom 25. April 1912,” 169; peasant resistance against colonial cotton projects in a very different context is also described in Allen Isaacman et al., “ ‘Cotton Is the Mother of Poverty’: Peasant Resistance to Forced Cotton Production in Mozambique, 1938–1961,” International Journal of African Historical Studies 1
3, no. 4 (1980): 581–615.
58. Thomas Ellison, The Cotton Trade of Great Britain (New York: A. M. Kelley, 1968), 95; “Cotton in British East Africa,” Imperial and Asiatic Quarterly Review, Third Series, 24 (July–October 1907): 85; Ehrlich, “Marketing,” 1; British Cotton Growing Association, Second Annual Report, for the Year Ending August 31st, 1906 (Manchester: Head Office, 1906), 23.
59. Kolonial-Wirtschaftliches Komitee, “Verhandlungen,” 169; Doran H. Ross, ed., Wrapped in Pride: Ghanaian Kente and African American Identity (Los Angeles: UCLA Fowler Museum of Cultural History, 1998), 126–49; Agbenyega Adedze, “Cotton in Eweland: Historical Perspectives,” in Ross, ed., Wrapped in Pride, 132; the numbers are from Maier, “Persistence,” 75; see also Sebald, Togo 1884–1914, 30; Metzger, Unsere, 242; “Der Baumwollbau in Togo, Seine Bisherige Entwicklung, und sein jetziger Stand,” undated draft of an article, file 8224, record group R 1001, Papers of the Deutsche Kolonialgesellschaft, Bundesarchiv, Berlin; Freiherr von Danckelman, Mittheilungen von Forschungsreisenden und Gelehrten aus den Deutschen Schutzgebieten 3 (1890): 140–41; “Bericht über den Baumwollbau in Togo,” Enclosure in Kaiserliches Gouvernment Togo, Gouverneur Zech, to Reichskolonialamt, Berlin, November 23, 1909, 1, file 8223, record group R 1001, Papers of the Deutsche Kolonialgesellschaft; Isaacman and Roberts, “Cotton, Colonialism,” 12.
