The Shadow King
Page 31
Tutankhamun
1321–1312
Ay
1311–1308
Horemheb
1308–1278
Dynasty 19
1278–1176
Rameses I
1278–1276
Seti I
1276–1265
Rameses II
1265–1200
Merenptah
1200–1190
Seti II
1190–1185
Siptah
1186–1178
Dynasty 20
1176–1078
Rameses III
1173–1142
Rameses IV
1142–1136
Rameses VI
1132–1125
Rameses XI
1110–1095 (LE) + 1095–1078
THIRD INTERMEDIATE PERIOD
Dynasty 21
1078–943
Pinedjem I
1063–1041 (UE)
Pinedjem II
997–974 (UE)
Dynasty 22
943–736
Shoshenq I
943–922
Dynasty 23 (LE)
736–666
Dynasty 24 (LE)
734–721
Dynasty 25
722–664
LATE PERIOD
Dynasty 26
664–525
Dynasty 27 (Persians)
525–404
Dynasty 28
404–398
Dynasty 29
398–379
Dynasty 30
379–340
Dynasty 31 (Persians)
340–332
HELLENISTIC PERIOD
Dynasty of Macedonia
332–310
Dynasty of Ptolemy
310–30
ROMAN PERIOD
BC 30–395 AD
BYZANTINE PERIOD
395–640
ARAB PERIOD
640–1517
OTTOMAN PERIOD
1517–1805
KHEDEVAL PERIOD
1805–1914
BRITISH PROTECTORATE SULTANATE
1914–1922
MONARCHY
1922–1953
REPUBLIC
1953–
List kindly provided by Aidan Dodson, an Egyptologist at the University of Bristol, UK, who specializes in Egyptian dynastic history and funerary archaeology.
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
AS I DESCRIBED IN THE PROLOGUE OF THIS BOOK, writing The Shadow King has taken me on a journey from London archives to the Egyptian desert, and I’m greatly indebted to all of the people who have helped me along every step of the way.
To begin the list with some of the archivists and librarians who were kind enough to offer their assistance, I am grateful to Jaromir Malek, Elizabeth Fleming, and all at the Griffith Institute in Oxford. Thank you so much for introducing me to the fascinating world of Howard Carter and his Tutankhamun. Thanks also to archivists at University College London, the University of Liverpool, and all at the British Library, one of my favorite places in the world.
A large number of scientists, historians, and Egyptologists shared their time and expertise when I was researching The Shadow King, as well as various other news and feature articles that also informed the book. In Egypt, they include Salima Ikram, Zahi Hawass, Ashraf Selim, Yehia Gad, and Tarek El Awady in Cairo; Kent Weeks, Mansour Boraik, and Raymond Johnson in Luxor; and Barry Kemp at Amarna. I am especially grateful to André Veldmeijer, Marcia Peters, and all at the Netherlands-Flemish Institute for their help and hospitality during my visit to Cairo in October 2011.
Elsewhere, I’m indebted to Dylan Bickerstaffe, Chris Naunton, Peter Clayton, Joyce Filer, Stephen Buckley, Rosalie David and all at the KNH Centre for Biomedical Egyptology in Manchester, Angus Graham, David Jeffreys, Megan Rowland, Sylvie Weens, Ben Harer, Irwin Braverman, James Gamble, Ian Barnes, Tom Gilbert, Svante Pääbo, Eske Willerslev, Eline Lorenzen, Helen Donoghue, David Lambert, Matthew Collins, Marianne Eaton-Krauss, Frank Rühli, Paul Gostner, Carsten Pusch, Albert Zink, Angelique Corthals, Christian Timmann, Christian Meyer, Ernst Rodin, Allan Dallas, David Durrheim, Erustus Kanga, Shin Maekawa, Martha Demas, Neville Agnew, Janet Shepherd, and Donald Reid. I am especially grateful to Robert Connolly, whom it was a pleasure to meet and get to know. Extra thanks also to Aidan Dodson for offering invaluable advice and comments on the entire manuscript (though any errors are of course mine).
I was touched by the help and support offered by the families and descendants of some of the people whose work I describe in this book, including Ramsay Derry, Douglas Derry, Jo Laurie-Pile, Audrey Carter, Lesley Easterman, and Justine Harrison. I hope I’ve done justice to your loved ones’ stories.
I would like to thank my agents, Peter Tallack, without whose enthusiasm and support this book would not have happened, and Karolina Sutton at Curtis Brown, for being generally brilliant. Thanks also to my editors: Bob Pigeon, Carolyn Sobczak, and my lovely copy editor Sarah Van Bonn.
And finally, thank you to my family for your ongoing support and encouragement: to my parents, my Grandma, my partner Ian (your comments on my early drafts were so, so appreciated), my beautiful Poppy, and of course baby Rufus, whose arrival in October 2012 gave me the deadline I needed to finish this book on time.
ILLUSTRATION CREDITS
Valley of the Kings from the air. Jo Marchant.
Hatshepsut Temple. Jo Marchant.
Village of Gurna. Jo Marchant.
Elder Lady mummy. G. Elliot Smith
Valley of the Kings. Vaughan Sam.
Opening of Tutankhamun’s tomb, February 16, 1923. Griffith Institute, University of Oxford.
Tutankhamun autopsy, November 1925. Griffith Institute, University of Oxford.
Douglas Derry, ca.1909. Ramsay Derry.
Douglas Derry, ca.1930. Ramsay Derry.
Tutankhamun mummy. Griffith Institute, University of Oxford.
Head of Tutankhamun. Griffith Institute, University of Oxford.
Fetus from Tutankhamun tomb. Griffith Institute, University of Oxford.
Tutankhamun coffin opening, 1968. Pilkington Brothers Ltd.
R. G. Harrison and team. Linton Reeve.
X-ray of Tutankhamun’s skull. Linton Reeve.
Small samples from royal mummies. Jo Marchant.
Kent Weeks. Jo Marchant.
Museum of Egyptian Antiquities. Jo Marchant.
Statue of Akhenaten. seamon53/Shutterstock.
Bust of Nefertiti. Vladimir Warangel/Shutterstock.
Egyptian postage stamp. rook76/Shutterstock.
Tutankhamun exhibit wall. Frank Trapper/Corbis.
Zahi Hawass in front of Tutankhamun mummy. Zahi Hawass.
Zahi Hawass at press conference. Getty Images.
Pharaonic graffiti. Jo Marchant.
Tank by Egyptian Museum. K. Desouki/AFP/Getty Images.
Soldier guarding Tutankhamun’s mask. Pedro Ugarte/AFP/Getty Images.
Zahi Hawass in his office. Jo Marchant.
Entrance to Tutankhamun’s tomb. macro_tb/Shutterstock.
NOTES
Chapter 1: Tunnel of Legends
1. Quoted in Mayes, S., The Great Belzoni: The Circus Strongman Who Discovered Egypt’s Treasures. London: Putnam, 1959 (reprinted by Tauris Parke in 2003), 161.
2. Quoted in Romer, J., Valley of the Kings. London: Michael O’Mara, 1981 (reprinted by Phoenix in 2001), 166.
3. Quoted, e.g., in Romer, J., Valley of the Kings, 214.
4. Maspero, G., and É. Brugsch, La trouvaille de Deir-el-Bahari. Cairo: F. Mourès & Cie, 1881.
5. Maspero, G., Les Momies royales de Deir-el-Bahari. Paris: Ernest Leroux, 1889.
6. Wilson, E., “Finding Pharaoh,” The Century Magazine, May 1887, 3–10.
7. Quoted in Wilson, E., “Finding Pharaoh.”
8. For example, in Romer, J., Valley of the Kings. However, other scholars believe this story refers to a different m
ummy found by Brugsch at Saqqara, or to the mummy of Amenhotep II when taken to Cairo years later—see Ridley, R. T., “The Discovery of the Pyramid Texts,” Zeitschrift für Ägyptische Sprache und Altertumskunde 110, 1983, 74–80.
Chapter 2: Clues by Candlelight
1. Maspero, G., Les Momies royales de Deir-el-Bahari. Paris: Ernest Leroux, 1889.
2. Quoted in Romer, J., Valley of the Kings. London: Michael O’Mara, 1981 (reprinted by Phoenix in 2001), 187.
3. Maspero, G., Les Momies royales de Deir-el-Bahari.
4. Quoted in Romer, J., Valley of the Kings, 201.
5. “Carter, Here, Tells of King ‘Tut’s’ Tomb,” The New York Times. April 20, 1924.
6. Quoted in Tyldesley, J. A., Tutankhamen: The Search for an Egyptian King. New York: Basic Books, 2012, 39.
7. Davis, T. M., The Tomb of Queen Tîyi. London: Constable & Co., 1910, 2.
8. Romer, J., Valley of the Kings, 267.
9. Mackowiak, P. A., Post-Mortem: Solving History’s Great Medical Mysteries. Philadelphia: American College of Physicians, 2007.
10. Lady Burghclere, “Biographical Sketch of the Late Lord Carnarvon,” introduction to The Tomb of Tut.Ankh.Amen Volume 1 by Howard Carter and A. C. Mace. London: Cassell, 1923.
11. James, T. G. H., Howard Carter: The Path to Tutankhamun. New York: Kegan Paul, 1992 (reprinted by Tauris Parke in 2008).
12. James, T. G. H., Howard Carter: The Path to Tutankhamun.
13. Romer, J., Valley of the Kings, 293.
14. Ibid., 296.
Chapter 3: Opera of a Vanished Civilization
1. Carter, H., and A. C. Mace, The Tomb of Tut.Ankh.Amen Volume 1. London: Cassell, 1923.
2. Discussed in Romer, J., Valley of the Kings. London: Michael O’Mara, 1981 (reprinted by Phoenix in 2001).
3. Carter, H., “Pharaohs Hid Tombs from Evil Spirits,” reprinted by The New York Times. May 31, 1923.
4. Quoted in Frayling, C., The Face of Tutankhamun. London: Faber and Faber, 1992, 2.
5. Quoted in James, T. G. H., Howard Carter: The Path to Tutankhamun. New York: Kegan Paul, 1992 (reprinted by Tauris Parke in 2008), 253.
6. Carter, H., and A. C. Mace, The Tomb of Tut.Ankh.Amen Volume 1, 96.
7. Hoving, T., Tutankhamun: The Untold Story. New York: Simon and Schuster, 1978.
8. Carter, H., and A. C. Mace, The Tomb of Tut.Ankh.Amen Volume 1.
9. “Gem-Studded Relics in Egyptian Tomb Amaze Explorers,” reprinted by The New York Times. December 1, 1922.
10. See: http://dlib.etc.ucla.edu/projects/Karnak/resource/ObjectCatalog/1858.
11. Carter, H., and A. C. Mace, The Tomb of Tut.Ankh.Amen Volume 1, 123.
12. Gilberg, M., “Alfred Lucas: Egypt’s Sherlock Holmes,” Journal of the American Institute for Conservation 36(1), 1997, 31–48.
13. “They Have an Eye for Profits,” The New York Times. January 27, 1923.
14. Untitled article in The New York Times. January 26, 1922.
15. “Would Put Mummy in Great Pyramid,” The New York Times. February 15, 1923.
16. Ibid.
17. “Commons Debates Pharaoh,” The New York Times. February 22, 1923.
18. “Wants Body Treated with Reverence,” reprinted by The New York Times. February 24, 1923.
19. Quoted in Frayling, C. The Face of Tutankhamun, 44.
20. Wallis, E., “A Kind Word for Mummies,” The New York Times. December 31, 1922.
21. Frayling, C., The Face of Tutankhamun, 46.
22. Quoted in James, T. G. H., Howard Carter: The Path to Tutankhamun. New York: Kegan Paul, 1992 (reprinted by Tauris Parke in 2008), 260.
23. Ibid., 261.
24. Lucas, A., “Notes on Some of the Objects from the Tomb of Tutankhamun.” Annales du Service des Antiquités de l’Égypte 41, 1942, 135–147.
25. Ibid.
26. “Only Five Entered the Tomb,” The New York Times. February 17, 1923.
27. Carter, H., and A. C. Mace, The Tomb of Tut.Ankh.Amen Volume 1, 183.
28. Ibid., 184.
29. Ibid., 186.
30. “Royalty Inspects Pharaoh Treasures,” reprinted by The New York Times. February 19, 1923.
31. “Splendor of Tomb of Tut-Ankh-Amen Astounds Experts,” reprinted by The New York Times. February 20, 1923.
Other sources include:
Howard Carter’s private journals and diaries, Harry Burton’s photographs, as well as eyewitness accounts of the opening of the burial chamber, written by A. C. Mace and A. H. Gardiner. All held at the Griffith Institute in Oxford, UK. They are also available online at http://www.griffith.ox.ac.uk/tutankhamundiscovery.html.
Other articles in The New York Times from December 1922 to February 1923.
Dodson, A., Amarna Sunset: Nefertiti, Tutankhamun, Ay, Horemheb, and the Egyptian Counter-Reformation. Cairo: The American University in Cairo Press. 2009.
Chapter 4: Death on Swift Wings
1. “Carnarvon Is Dead of an Insect’s Bite at Pharaoh’s Tomb,” The New York Times. April 5, 1923.
2. Quoted in Frayling, C., The Face of Tutankhamun. London: Faber and Faber, 1992, 44.
3. Quoted, e.g., in Frayling, C., The Face of Tutankhamun, 50.
4. “Carnarvon’s Death Spreads Theories about Vengeance,” The New York Times. April 6, 1923.
5. Quoted in Frayling, C., The Face of Tutankhamun, 47.
6. “Death by Evil Spirit Possible, Says Doyle,” The New York Times. April 6, 1923.
7. Quoted in Frayling, C., The Face of Tutankhamun, 47.
8. Noted in Tyldesley, J. A., Tutankhamen: The Search for an Egyptian King. New York: Basic Books, 2012.
9. Battle, G. G., “Carnarvon and Wells,” The New York Times. April 15, 1923.
10. “Carter Goes to Luxor to Reopen the Tomb,” The New York Times. October 4, 1923.
11. Quoted in Frayling, C., The Face of Tutankhamun, 52.
12. “Nerves Are Taut in Pharaoh’s Tomb,” The New York Times. December 9, 1923.
13. Carter, H., The Tomb of Tut.Ankh.Amen Volume 2. London: Cassell, 1927, 27.
14. Ibid., 51.
15. Quoted in James, T. G. H., Howard Carter: The Path to Tutankhamun. New York: Kegan Paul, 1992 (reprinted by Tauris Parke in 2008), 337.
16. “Carter, Here, Tells of King ‘Tut’s’ Tomb,” The New York Times. April 20, 1924.
17. Taylor, J. H., Egyptian Mummies. London: British Museum Press, 2010.
Other sources include:
Howard Carter’s private journals and diaries, held at the Griffith Institute in Oxford, UK. They are also available online at http://www.griffith.ox.ac.uk/tutankhamundiscovery.html.
Articles in The New York Times from April 1923 to April 1924.
Pinch, G., Handbook of Egyptian Mythology. Santa Barbara: ABC-CLIO, 2002.
Chapter 5: A Brutal Postmortem
1. Derry, D. E., “Report upon the Examination of Tut-Ankh-Amen’s Mummy,” in The Tomb of Tut.Ankh.Amen Volume 2 by H. Carter. London: Cassell, 1927.
2. Smith, G. E., The Royal Mummies. London: Constable, 1912.
3. Private correspondence between Douglas Derry and Grafton Elliot Smith, now held in the archive of University College London.
4. Carter, H., The Tomb of Tut.Ankh.Amen Volume 2. London: Cassell, 1927, 135.
5. Ibid., 119.
6. Ibid., 113.
7. Letter from Douglas Derry to his son Hugh, written in 1925, kindly made available to me by Derry’s grandson, Ramsay Derry.
8. Carter, H., The Tomb of Tut.Ankh.Amen Volume 2.
9. Howard Carter journal entry, November 27–December 14, 1925 (held in the Griffith Institute, Oxford, UK).
10. Ibid., October 23, 1926.
Other sources include:
Howard Carter’s private journals and diaries, and photographs of the initial examination of Tutankhamun’s mummy, taken by Harry Burton in November 1925. All now held in the Griffith Institute in Oxford, UK, and available online at http://www.griffith.ox.ac.uk/tutankh
amundiscovery.html.
Douglas Derry’s private notebooks from the examination of Tutankhamun’s mummy, held in the archive of University College London.
Private notes and correspondence kindly made available to me by Douglas Derry’s grandson, Ramsay Derry.
Taylor, J. H. Journey Through the Afterlife: The Ancient Egyptian Book of the Dead. London: British Museum Press, 2010.
Waldron, H. A., “The Study of the Human Remains from Nubia: The Contribution of Grafton Elliot Smith and His Colleagues to Palaeopathology,” Medical History 44(3), 2000, 363–388.
Chapter 6: Palm Wine, Spices, and Myrrh
1. Carter, H., The Tomb of Tut.Ankh.Amen Volume 3. London: Cassell, 1933, 28.
2. Ibid., 121.
3. “Howard Carter Seeks Tomb of Alexander,” The New York Times. September 6, 1931.
4. James, T. G. H., Howard Carter: The Path to Tutankhamun. New York: Kegan Paul, 1992 (reprinted by Tauris Parke in 2008), 454.
5. Marchant, J., “Tutankhamun: The Tomb Is Opened to All,” The Observer. July 18, 2010.
6. Herodotus, The Histories, Book II, Chapters 86–89, c. 430 BC. Translated by George Rawlinson in 1858.
7. Quoted in a letter from anatomist R. Harrison to pathologist E. G. Evans, dated June 9, 1960, now held in the archive of the University of Liverpool, UK.
8. Lucas, A., “The Question of the Use of Bitumen or Pitch by the Ancient Egyptians in Mummification,” Journal of Egyptian Archaeology 1(4), 1914, 241–245.
9. Lucas, A., “‘Cedar’-Tree Products Employed in Mummification.” Journal of Egyptian Archaeology 17, 1931, 13–21.
10. Harris, J. E., and K. R. Weeks, X-raying the Pharaohs. London: Macdonald, 1973, 92.