by Brown Robert
The demon named Managarm is also likely to have been a redevelop ment of the pre-Christian Norse myth of Fenrir. The name “Managarm” roughly translates as “moon hound.” This demon is said to have been born in the trunk of an Ironwood tree that was tended closely by an ancient witch. Managarm has a taste for the flesh of the dead, and so he is often found visiting graveyards. Like Varcolac, some legends say that one day Managarm will swallow the moon and cover the heavens with so much human blood that it will block out the light of the sun.
Mammon was originally an Aramaic word for “riches” and is thought to have been somehow associated with wolves (though the nature of this association is unclear). Whether or not the Aramaeans actually considered this to be the name of a certain demon, however, remains a matter of some debate. Regardless, the concept was eventually personified in both Judaism and Christianity, and the word Mammon came to be thought of as the name of a wolf-demon of wealth, greed, dishonest business, and envy.
The Church’s Persecution of Wolves
In 870 C.E., the archbishop of Mainz gave a sermon that denounced the Saxon belief in shapeshifters. Little could he have known that his own church would later claim that a shapeshifter, the werewolf, was the devil incarnate. In fact, by the year 1270 C.E., the church considered it a crime of heresy if someone did not believe in the existence of werewolves. This was a rather strong paradigm shift, to say the least.
However, the relationship between wolves and Christianity was not always thus. At one time in church history, wolves were believed to be the holy protectors of the tomb of St. Vincent. So this presents an important question: just when, where, and (perhaps most importantly) how did things go so horribly wrong in the relationship between wolves, werewolves, and the Christian church?
Anyone who has read the New Testament of the Christian Bible would agree that it is full of pastoral metaphors that discuss the relationship of predator-sheep-shepherd. In fact, the clergy title of pastor originally meant “shepherd.” Jesus and God (as well as the clergy, in some churches) are seen as the “divine shepherds” of Christians, who are the “sheep.” The “predators,” in this relationship are the devil and his assorted agents of evil. Whereas the shepherds of biblical times often had to fend off lions in order to protect their flocks, the shepherds of Europe were more often fighting off wolves. So even before the arrival of Christianity, wolves were seen by shepherds and farmers as a nuisance. This metaphor of the new religion of Christianity, however, now allowed Europeans to label the animals as the embodiment of evil.
Beastly Words
The word pastoral means something related to the lifestyle, work, and activities of shepherds and their livestock. The word pastor, which is now a popular religious title, originally referred to a shepherd.
The term inquisitor, as it is used here, was a church title for an official member of the Ecclesiastical Court of the Inquisition, which was supposed to be charged with rooting out enemies of Christianity, such as heretics, witches, devil worshippers, and quite often just about anyone else that the church deemed undesirable.
By the fifteenth century, however, the idea of physical lycanthropy found itself under attack by new discoveries in the developing sciences. In 1486, German clergyman and inquisitor Heinrich Kramer discussed the issue of werewolves in his text Malleus Maleficarum, or “The Hammer of Evil/Witches.” According to this work, no human could physically assume the shape of a wolf (except by the power of God, of course). Therefore, the text explained, werewolves had to exist on one side of two polar opposite groups. They could be either the servants of God or the agents of the devil. (The book leaves absolutely no room for middle ground in this regard.)
If the werewolf was of the latter group that served the devil, then the book would appear to claim that he or she was not actually a real were wolf at all. The manuscript explained that witches who believed they could shapeshift into wolves were actually being fooled by a trick of their devilish master. Kramer insisted that this only happened because the devil had created a convincing illusion that easily made his witches believe they had changed their shapes, when in fact they had not.
Sadly, it was this issue that placed werewolves in the path of the Inquisition. This led to a new rise in werewolf trials, which briefly became almost as common as trials for witchcraft. In all honesty, it would have been slightly better to be found guilty of being a witch than a werewolf in those times. Whereas witches of this period were executed by hanging, convicted werewolves were not. Werewolves were still generally believed to have certain protective attributes. Therefore, it was ultimately decided by Inquisition authorities that any convicted werewolf be burned alive.
King John’s War on Wolves
King John, ruler of the British Empire from 1199 to 1216 C.E., is one of the most severely disliked monarchs in human history. In fact, he was so highly despised by the masses that a number of negative rumors about the king began to spread among the people. One such rumor claimed that King John was actually a werewolf. This concept followed the king to his grave despite his best efforts. It is said that, shortly after his death, a number of monks reported hearing strange sounds coming from inside his tomb. Not wanting to have his unclean corpse on such sanctified grounds, they actually exhumed King John’s corpse and relocated it to a patch of land that was not consecrated.
Perhaps as a result of the werewolf rumors, King John seemed to develop a strong hatred for wolves. He was responsible for placing a 5 shilling bounty on wolves. He claimed that they were creatures that should be removed from any truly civilized Christian empire. He also endorsed the church’s claim that wolves were the embodiment of evil and should be wiped from existence. This practice, or others like it, would continue for centuries after the death of King John—the despised, wolf-killing king who was thought of as a werewolf by his own people.
The Least You Need to Know
• The historical account of one priest’s encounter with a man and woman who’d transformed into talking wolves may have been a reinvention of the Greek Lycaean legend.
• The so-called “wolf witches” of European lore were likely not witches at all, but priestesses of a pre-Christian Valkyrie cult.
• Christianity once saw wolves as protectors of saintly tombs but later saw them as the embodiment of evil.
• Many of the medieval church’s negative claims about both wolves and werewolves were probably caused by the campaign meant to demonize preexisting nature religions.
Chapter 8
Werewolf Hysteria in Medieval France
In This Chapter
• The role of the werewolf in the history and folklore of the French
• The frightening and bloody killing spree of the “Beast of Gevaudan”
• The lycanthropy trial of Frenchmen Pierre Burgot and Michael Verdun
• A discussion of the werewolf of Caude
• The terrible killings of the infamous “Demon Tailor of Chalons”
• Francois Bertrand’s obsession with the dead
• The unusual trial and unique sentence of confessed lycanthrope Jean Grenier
The werewolf has long been a major player in the folklore, superstitions, history, and culture of France. Beginning sometime during the Dark Ages and continuing through the Age of Enlightenment, the entire country of France seems to have been overwhelmed by a widespread obsession about (and extreme fear of) werewolves. Historically speaking, far more people have been tried and convicted of lycanthropy in France than any other country on Earth (not to mention cases that never made it to court, often due to the swift and violent actions of frantic mobs).
The Werewolf of Medieval France
The French word for a werewolf is loup-garou, which is in itself difficult to explain fully. In general, the word has come to mean “werewolf.” The term is a combination of the French word loup, which means “wolf,” and another term of uncertain origins, garou.
The word “garou” seems to have entered the French
language sometime during the fourteenth century. The exact origins of the word cannot be concretely verified. There are some who believe the word to be a transliteration of an obscure Frankish term, gerulf, which roughly translates as something along the lines of “shapeshifter.”
A loup-garou, in the French view, could take any number of forms. Most generically, it was thought of as a wolf or wolflike evil entity that was strongly associated with the devil. This meant that the term could be applied to both men and beasts. Sometimes the word was applied to human beings who had committed such terrible crimes that it was difficult to reconcile how they could be humans. In other cases, a particularly violent dog, wolf, or similar animal might have been dubbed a loup-garou, often to explain why it had attacked humans or to explain why it was so difficult for even the most skilled hunters to kill or capture it.
The Beast of Gevaudan
On a sunny afternoon in June of 1764, a young girl in southern France was in a pasture, tending to her family’s cattle herd. When a number of the animals became unusually restless (including a few of her family’s faithful herding dogs that she’d brought for protection), she raised her eyes to the nearby tree line. She immediately saw that a giant wolf was charging across the pasture toward her. According to the girl’s account, this wolf stood nearly as high as the cows.
Apparently, her dogs didn’t feel up to the task of defending the girl. Seeing the monstrous wolf coming at them, the dogs immediately ran away with their tails between their legs. Believe it or not, the girl claimed it was the cows that saved her. A number of horned cattle took positions between the girl and the wolf and tightly closed ranks. When the giant beast approached, the cows managed to fend it off by stabbing at it with their horns. Though the girl believed the cows were protecting her, they may have just assumed that it was after them. The girl returned home and reported the incident to her father, who passed the information on to the authorities in Gevaudan. It would later be realized just how fortunate she had been. This girl would be one of few human beings to encounter the “Beast of Gevaudan” and survive.
The Carnage Begins
After this initial encounter, the bodies of the dead began piling up with increasing frequency. At first, it was mainly killing livestock. In July, however, the beast claimed its first known human victim. In the woods near Gevaudan, a very young village girl was killed by the beast. Reports of the incident claim that her flesh had been horribly mangled, and that her heart had been torn completely out of her chest (and presumably devoured by the beast). Another little girl also soon fell victim to the beast, but all that was ever found of her was her shoes and a few bloody shreds from her clothing.
Soon enough, the shredded and partially devoured bodies of a good many more humans would start to be discovered. With each attack, the animal seemed to grow increasingly bold. In the month of August, the beast attacked a group of travelers consisting of men, women, and children (killing several people). By September, it is said to have even been attacking groups of armed men. Many survivors from these groups claimed that they had shot or stabbed the creature. However, the killings kept right on. Rumors began to spread that conventional weapons could not kill this beast. The commoners of the region were now convinced that it was not a giant wolf carrying out the attacks, but a loup-garou.
The Beast That Would Not Die
Summer gave way to autumn, yet little else changed. The beast was still out there, still killing. In October, a pair of local hunters came upon the beast in a small clearing. It immediately came at them, all claws and teeth. When the beast was less than 10 paces away, claimed one of the hunters, he’d fired his musket and scored a square shot that seemed to slow it down. The other hunter fired and hit the beast, which ended the attack. The beast turned around and limped back into the shelter of the woods.
The hunters headed back to report what had happened to authorities (who ultimately proved that they were completely incapable of protecting the people from this violent creature). Since these men (both experienced marksmen) were so certain that their shots had hit the beast in the chest and that the beast had appeared hurt when it retreated, many assumed it had gone somewhere to die (as many canine species are known to do). However, just a few days later, the killings and attacks resumed.
The Beast Marks Gevaudan
By this time, stories of the beast attacks in Gevaudan had spread to Paris. Media outlets were publishing stories of the encounters, some of which were purely spectacular works of fiction. However, most seemed to have agreed on what the beast looked like, based on eyewitness testimonies. It was far larger than any known species of European wolves, with an especially large head and snout. The hair on its front was grey, while the hair on its back was black. The teeth were also said to be especially wide, so much so that they could be seen from a good distance when exposed (which is an unusual trait, one that is uncommon to today’s living wolf species). Also, the beast’s gigantic paws were said to be equipped with long and sharp claws (another trait uncommon to canines, one that is usually found on large predatory cats).
Some papers of the period even tried to say it was some unusual mating between a wolf and a large cat (or some thought a wolf and jackal). Regardless of what the beast actually was, the region of Gevaudan was now completely at its mercy. Unfortunately, it does not seem to have had any. Needless to say, the people of the area avoided the woods that winter and kept their children in the safety of their villages.
As winter neared its end, the Beast of Gevaudan had begun attacking people in their own villages. The most incredible attack was upon two children who were in the presence of their parents and a fair-size group of other villagers. The beast pounced upon the children, and the adults came to their aid with pitchforks, knives, rocks, and just about any weapon they could lay their hands on.
Unfortunately, their blows did almost nothing to stop the wolf. When the dust had settled, one of the boys lay terribly wounded. The beast managed to sink its enormous fangs into the neck of the other poor child and fled. The parents and villagers stood helpless as the beast dragged the screaming child into the woods. The boy was never seen alive again.
Soldiers in Pretty Dresses
The authorities of Gevaudan seemed powerless to stop the beast that now threatened the people of the region. They decided to send a request for assistance to French Royal Court in Versailles. King Louis the Fifteenth was appalled by what he heard and immediately mobilized an entire unit of cavalry and infantry soldiers. The unit was made up of 57 skilled French Dragoons (40 foot-soldiers and 17 cavalry) and was led by a captain by the name of Duhamel, who was briefly seen by some as a legendary wolf-killer for his role. Later, this view would change. Duhamel, after realizing that most of the beast’s victims had been women and children, decided that dressing in drag was the answer to cornering the beast. He ordered a certain number of his Dragoons to dress in women’s clothing as they rode into the area. He had hoped that this trick might lure the beast out into the open since it did not seem to have any fear of humans whatsoever. This ruse, however, did not succeed in causing the beast to attack them.
Beastly Words
Dragoons are specially trained soldiers that were once a common element of European armies. They were trained to fight on foot as well as horseback and were schooled in cavalry tactics. In the beginning, members of such units were commonly armed with “dragon” muskets.
Once Duhamel and his band of merry, cross-dressing Dragoons reached Gevaudan, he immediately assumed command of just about everything—the magistrates, villagers, livestock, farmers, etc. Whatever he thought he needed to stop the carnage, he took it. Captain Duhamel organized the villagers and armed them with heavy sticks. He placed his horsemen on line behind them and recruited the best of the hunting marksmen from among the local woodsmen. He then moved the entire group across the area. The villagers were put out in front with orders to beat at brush and vegetation with the sticks (and probably also as bait) in order to flush out the b
east from any hiding place. The hunters were placed among the villagers, and the armed Dragoons followed in line formation behind them.
This plan did produce some results. Sadly, close to about 100 normal wolves are also thought to have been killed that day. However, the beast finally did show itself on multiple occasions during the execution of Duhamel’s bold maneuver. The hunters and soldiers opened fire whenever it appeared. A number of shots were seen hitting the beast in vital areas. Eventually, it ran back into the woods and did not come out again.
A Foolish Assumption
A group of local hunters were sent in to track the dying animal down and confirm the kill. However, they were never able to find the beast’s body. Regardless, Duhamel was absolutely certain that no living creature could have survived such obviously fatal wounds. Believing he had succeeded in bringing down the Beast of Gevaudan, Captain Duhamel returned to Versailles like a conquering hero. However, the celebration would be a short one.
