by Graeme Davis
THESEUS AND
THE MINOTAUR
BY GRAEME DAVIS
ILLUSTRATED BY JOSÉ DANIEL CABRERA PEÑA
CONTENTS
INTRODUCTION
Sources Theseus and the Metaphor The Age of Theseus
THESEUS’ EARLY LIFE
The Journey to Athens Arrival in Athens Alternate Versions The Growth of Athens
THESEUS AND THE MINOTAUR – THE MYTH
The Birth of the Minotaur The Death of Androgeus The Tribute The Challenge of Minos Into the Labyrinth The Escape from Crete The Return to Athens
MINOS, THE LABYRINTH, AND THE MINOTAUR – THE HISTORY
King Minos The Cretan Bull The Labyrinth Mazes and Monsters
THESEUS IN CRETE – VARIATIONS, HISTORY, AND INTERPRETATION
The Death of the Minotaur Ariadne The Crane-Dance of Delos Other Traditions
KING OF ATHENS
THESEUS’ OTHER ADVENTURES
Theseus and Pirithous Lapiths and the Centaurrs Helen and Persephone Theseus and the Amazons Phaedra and Hippolytus Theseus in Other Myths
THE LEGEND GROWS
The Ancient World Movies and Televisions Games The Minotaur Brand
CONCLUSION
GLOSSARY
BIBLIOGRAPHY
INTRODUCTION
The story of Theseus and the Minotaur is one of the best-known Greek myths. It has inspired plays, films, books, and countless fantasy games. The Minotaur, originally a unique monster, has spawned an entire race of bull-headed ogres in games like Dungeons & Dragons. But the slaying of the Minotaur is only one part of an entire cycle of tales recounting Theseus’ adventures.
Born with divine blood, Theseus’ youthful adventures mirror the spread of Athenian influence through the surrounding region of Attica. He is said to have traveled with Hercules, battled the Amazons, sailed with the Argonauts, and kidnapped a youthful Helen in the years before the Trojan War. As king of Athens, he enacted reforms that laid the foundation for Athenian democracy.
The historical Theseus, if there was one, seems to have lived at some time between 1300 and 1200 BC. A generation before the Trojan War, this was a pivotal time in Greek history, when history was only just beginning to emerge from the mists of mythology. The land of Greece, dominated by the Mycenaean and Minoan cultures of the late Bronze Age, was beginning to take its first steps toward the Classical era.
An illustration of Plutarch. His Life of Theseus is the most detailed ancient source for the hero’s story. (Alamy)
Sources
As well as being among the best-known Greek myths, the adventures of Theseus are also among the most retold. Each version differs from all the others, and there is no single authoritative text. The two principal sources are the Life of Theseus by the first-century Greek writer Plutarch and the Metamorphoses by the Roman poet Ovid. Each writer has his own strengths and weaknesses.
Plutarch is considered by some to be the father of modern biography. He is careful to record as many different versions of a tale as he can, and he makes reference to many earlier historians whose work are now lost. His Life of Theseus is thorough, but his digressions into alternative sources and versions can make it difficult to read.
Ovid’s Metamorphoses collect over 250 myths into 15 books, united by the overall theme of love and its power to make fools even of the gods. The adventures of Theseus are found in the seventh book, and are retold in a highly poetic style that can also be hard to follow.
In addition, certain episodes from Theseus’ life and adventures – especially the deaths of his wife Phaedra and son Hippolytus – were popular with Greek and Roman tragedians, each of whom told a slightly different version of the story.
The purpose of this book is to collect together information from a wide range of contradictory sources and organize it as clearly as possible without losing the diversity represented by the different versions. It also seeks to set the stories in their historical contexts – the times they represent and the times in which they were written down – and to show how they might reflect actual Bronze Age events that have been established by historians and archeologists.
Theseus and the Metaphor
The story of Theseus is set in a kind of dreamtime where history and mythology overlap. Although the tale has many elements that are pure myth, it is also thought that it contains echoes of historical truth, albeit in a highly mythologized and allegorical form.
The earliest surviving sources for the story of Theseus date to the Classical era, when Athens was the undisputed mistress of Greece. While Theseus is not credited with founding the city as Romulus is with founding Rome, he is still the greatest Athenian hero and an allegorical embodiment of the city’s might and destiny, seen by the Athenians in much the same light as medieval Britons regarded the legendary King Arthur. The myths of Theseus can be read at face value as a series of adventure stories, or they can be seen as an allegory for the early spread of Athenian influence in an age dominated by the Minoan and Mycenaean cultures.
The Age of Theseus
Most classical sources place the life of Theseus between 1273 BC and c. 1223 BC, a generation before the Trojan War. Theseus’ sons Demophon and Acamas were said to have been among the warriors who hid in the famous Trojan Horse.
Late Minoan IIIC
In Crete, archeologists call this period Late Minoan IIIC. It marks the final phase of the Minoan civilization, and is marked by the widespread destruction by fire of Minoan palaces on Crete and Mycenaean palaces on the Greek mainland. The events surrounding the destruction are unclear, and theories include civil strife or invasion by the Dorian Greeks or the mysterious Sea Peoples who attacked across the eastern Mediterranean at this time.
Theseus and the Minotaur by Etienne-Jules Ramey, 1826. Tuileries Gardens, Paris. (Photograph by Thesupermat)
The Sea Peoples are also credited with destroying the Hittite Empire in Anatolia and the Mitanni civilization of southern Anatolia and northern Syria at about this time, and with attacking Egypt in the reign of Ramses III. However, they are not mentioned in any of the Theseus myths.
The Dorian Greeks are said by some ancient writers to be the descendants of Hercules, who returned to Greece after several generations in exile. Given that Theseus and Hercules are said to have adventured together, it seems that this must have taken place well after Theseus’ time. In light of a dearth of hard evidence for a distinctive Dorian people, some modern archeologists believe that the “Dorian invasion” was invented in the 19th century to explain the collapse of the Minoan and Mycenaean civilizations. Even if these people did exist, the Dorian invasion does not figure in any of the Theseus myths, and it is unlikely that such a significant historical event would have gone unmentioned.
It is also worth noting that the victims of this destruction were Mycenaean Greeks rather than Minoans. The Greeks had occupied Crete and taken over its palaces around 1420 BC, following an earlier disaster that for some signals the end of “pure” Minoan culture.
FROM MYTH TO HISTORY
It might be argued that the Trojan War marks a dividing line between the age of Greek myth and the dawn of Greek history. Homer’s account of the war was once thought to be nothing more than a legend, but since the 19th-century German archeologist Heinrich Schliemann discovered the ruins of a great Bronze Age city near the village of Hisarlik in western Turkey, it has been generally agreed that the Trojan War was a real historical event.
Although all accounts agree that Theseus lived before the Trojan War, he is still one of the latest of the Greek heroes, and to some extent he reflects his times. Gods no longer walk the earth, and their meddling in mortal affairs is positively restrained by Olympian standards. Theseus’ adventures provide
a link between the Age of Greek Mythology and the Classical era of Greek History, underpinning historical events such as the rise of Athens to regional prominence and the last days of the Minoan-Mycenaean cultural complex that had dominated the eastern Mediterranean in the late Bronze Age.
As might be expected, then, the surviving accounts are a mix of mythic adventure and early history. Like Jason, Theseus was a hero who walked in two worlds. Despite the overtly fantastic nature of some of his adventures, he is perhaps the most likely of all the Greek heroes to have actually lived.
THESEUS’ EARLY LIFE
Theseus had two fathers, one mortal and one immortal. His mother, Aethra, was a princess from the city of Troezen, across the Saronic Gulf to the southwest of Athens.
Aegeus
Aegeus, the king of Athens, had been married twice, but was still childless. He went to consult the oracle of Delphi, but received a very puzzling answer: “Do not loosen the bulging mouth of the wineskin until you have reached the height of Athens, lest you die of grief.” He had no idea what to make of it.
King Pittheus of Troezen was renowned for his skill at interpreting oracles, and Aegeus visited Troezen to consult him. Pittheus introduced Aegeus to his daughter Aethra, and the two spent a drunken night together. The same night, Athena came to Aethra in a dream and prompted her to wade to the nearby island of Sphairia, where she was visited by the god Poseidon in the form of a bull. There is some disagreement as to the order of these two liaisons, but, in any event, Theseus was conceived with a mixture of mortal and divine blood.
Theseus lifts the stone to take his father’s sword in this Roman terracotta from the second century AD. (Ancient Art & Architecture Collection Ltd / Alamy)
Before leaving the pregnant Aethra and returning to Athens, Aegeus buried his sword and his sandals under a huge rock. He told her that when her child was strong enough to lift the rock and take them, he should come to Athens. Aegeus cautioned Aethra that secrecy was vital; a powerful faction of nobles called the Pallantides, or sons of Pallas, coveted the throne of Athens, and the child would be in grave danger if they discovered he was Aegeus’ heir.
Aegeus consults the Oracle in this vase painting from the fifth century BC. Currently held in the Altes Museum, Berlin
Theseus was raised at his grandfather’s court in Troezen. To protect him, Pittheus concealed his connection with Aegeus and spread the half-truth that Theseus was a son of Poseidon, for whom the people of Troezen had a particular reverence.
One incident in his childhood showed that Theseus was destined to be a hero. The great Hercules came to visit Troezen after completing his famous labors. Taking off the skin of the Nemean Lion, which he wore as a cloak, Hercules laid it on a couch, where it sat in a most lifelike manner. The other children were terrified, but Theseus picked up an axe and attacked the supposed monster.
The Journey to Athens
When Theseus was grown, his mother showed him the stone under which Aegeus had left his sword and sandals. Theseus lifted the stone easily and took the gifts that his mortal father had left him. His mother and grandfather advised him to travel to Athens by sea; the journey was both shorter and safer. However, Theseus decided that he would take the longer and more dangerous land route, braving bandits and other dangers along the way.
Periphetes the Clubber
Soon after leaving his mother and grandfather, Theseus passed by the small city of Epidaurus. It was renowned as the birthplace of the healing god Asclepius, and its great Asclepeion or healing temple attracted pilgrims from across Greece. It was close to Epidaurus that Theseus encountered the bandit known as Periphetes the Clubber.
Like Theseus, Periphetes was half-divine. His father was the smith-god Hephaestus, and, like his father, Periphetes was lame in one leg but possessed prodigious strength. He had only one eye, in the middle of his head, just like the Cyclops that helped his father with his forge. For many years, Periphetes had killed unwary travelers with his great bronze club, driving his victims into the ground like fence-posts.
When Periphetes attacked Theseus, the hero dodged the mighty club, grabbed the end of it, and yanked it out of Periphetes’ hands. He then used it to beat Periphetes into the ground, as Periphetes had done to so many innocent travelers. Theseus kept the bronze club and carried it in many of his later adventures.
Sinis the Pine Bender
Leaving Epidaurus behind, Theseus soon reached the Isthmus of Corinth, the narrow strip of land that connects the Peloponnesus, the southern portion of Greece, to the mainland in the north. It was here that Theseus encountered his second foe, Sinis the Pine Bender.
Periphetes was Theseus’ first opponent as a hero. He tricked the notorious robber and killed him with his own bronze club.
FUNERAL GAMES
The most famous athletic event of the ancient world was the Olympic Games, which is said to have started in 776 BC as a religious festival in honor of Zeus. Funeral games are an older custom, and some scholars believe that the Olympic Games grew out of this tradition.
One of the earliest mentions of ancient Greek sports is found in Homer’s Iliad. Achilles, the greatest of the Greek warriors, honors the shade of his fallen kinsman Patroclus with animal and human sacrifices and a set of funeral games that include foot and chariot races, discus and javelin throwing, and wrestling, archery, and sword-fighting contests.
Ancient sources suggest that funeral games were common in Mycenaean Greece and other ancient cultures. The Etruscan and early Roman civilizations also held games to honor the dead, but as time passed their emphasis shifted more and more toward bloodshed and spectacle, ending in the gladiatorial games for which Rome became notorious.
Unlike Theseus and Periphetes, Sinis was entirely mortal. He was a grandson of Corinthus, the king of Corinth. Sinis tricked passing travelers into helping him bend a pine tree to the ground, and while his victim was occupied he would suddenly lash his wrists to the tree and let it go, hurling his hapless victim to his death.
When Sinis saw Theseus approaching, he called out to the young man to come and help him with the tree he was bending. Theseus ran up, grabbed hold of the tree top, and helped pull it to the ground. However, when Sinis sprang at him and tried to tie his hand to the tree, Theseus caught the killer and tied his hand to the pine tree instead. Then, still holding Sinis, Theseus bent a second pine and tied the killer’s other hand to that one. When Theseus let go of both trees, they sprang upright, tearing Sinis in half.
As the muderer died, Theseus heard a scream behind him and saw a young woman run and hide in a bed of rushes and asparagus. Theseus eventually coaxed the woman out, promising not to harm her, and discovered that she was Perigune, the daughter of Sinis. Grateful to be free of her murderous father, Perigune slept with Theseus. The next morning, Theseus continued on his way, but many months later Perigune gave birth to his son, Melanippus.
The Crommyonian Sow
Between Corinth and Megara lay the village of Crommyon. For many months, the surrounding area had been ravaged by a wild monstrous pig. The sow had killed so many of the farmers that they no longer went out to plow their fields, and the village was on the edge of ruin. When Theseus reached Crommyon, he heard of the villagers’ plight, so he hunted down the sow and killed it, thus saving the village.
Sciron
Theseus continued on his way. As the road neared the city of Megara, it ran along the edge of a steep cliff called the Scironian Rocks. This was the haunt of an elderly bandit named Sciron, who was another son of the sea-god, Poseidon. Whenever lone travelers came down the road, Sciron would stop them and demand that they wash his feet. However, when they knelt down to do so, Sciron would kick them off the cliff into the ocean, where they would be devoured by a monstrous turtle.
When Sciron demanded that Theseus wash his feet, the young hero readily agreed. However, when the aged bandit tried to kick him over the cliff, Theseus caught his foot and hurled him off the rocks into the ocean below. From the top of the cliff, Th
eseus watched as the great turtle tore the murderous bandit to pieces.
Many years later, Theseus created the Isthmian Games to atone for this kinslaying, since Sciron was another son of Poseidon.
Cercyon
When Theseus was only 12 miles from Athens, he passed the town of Eleusis, which was famous as the home of the Eleusinian mysteries, a cult of Demeter and Persephone.
Cercyon, the king of Eleusis, haunted the roads around Eleusis and challenged passers-by to a wrestling-match, promising his kingdom to any opponent who could defeat him. He was undefeated when Theseus met him, having killed everyone who dared to fight him by crushing them in a mighty bear hug.
Theseus agreed to the match, knowing he could rely on his skill to overcome Cercyon’s brute strength. When the mad king came at him, Theseus dodged out of his crushing embrace and grabbed his opponent around the knees. He then lifted the king up and smashed him down onto his head, killing him instantly. Theseus was thus named as the new king of Eleusis, but still he carried on in his journey to Athens.
Theseus battles the Crommyonian Sow in this fifth-century BC terracotta plaque from the island of Melos. Staatliche Antikensammlungen, Munich.
Procrustes the Stretcher
As Theseus approached Athens, he passed by Mount Korydallos, the home of Procrustes, yet another son of the promiscuous Poseidon. Procrustes was a smith who had made two iron beds. He never failed to offer travelers lodging for the night, and he always made sure that they only saw a bed that did not fit them. If the guest was too short, Procrustes would stretch them until they were exactly long enough; if they were too tall, he lopped off their legs by the required amount.
