by Benn Steil
trade unions, 124, 149, 187, 200
transportation blockades, 254, 269–74, 281–85, 287, 290, 297, 298, 303, 307, 309, 310–14, 322, 324–25, 331–32, 334, 371
Treasury, British, 363, 366
Treasury Department, U.S., 8, 11, 26, 61, 88–89, 90, 108, 162, 224, 270, 362, 367, 370, 372
Trotsky, Leon, 58, 72–73, 127
Trudeau, Arthur, 282
Truman, Harry S.:
Acheson’s relationship with, 25, 32, 34–35, 40, 41, 42–43, 45, 63, 94–96, 125, 225, 262, 312, 334
Acheson’s views on policies of, 50, 70, 93–94, 225, 262, 302, 306, 312, 320, 322–25, 329–31, 407
advisers of, 8–9, 12, 18, 32, 41, 89, 97, 102–3, 276–77, 278, 316–17
background of, 97, 430
Berlin Airlift approved by, 277–78, 282–83, 287, 312, 332–34
Berlin policies of, 7–8, 276–78, 282–83, 287, 293–94, 312, 332–34, 379–80
cabinet of, 39, 42, 281–82, 301–2, 316–17
Clay’s views on policies of, 64–68, 70, 105–7, 150, 247, 270–75, 282, 324–25, 334
Clayton’s relationship with, 39, 52, 225, 226, 262
congressional relations of, 34–36, 42, 49–50, 90, 110–11, 190–95, 197, 212–13, 221–22, 225, 226, 228–29, 247–48, 253, 259–62, 317–18
as Democratic leader, 34, 219–20, 301–2, 317–18
economic policies of, 18, 20, 44, 89–92, 172, 258, 269–71, 278, 287
election campaign of (1948), 219–20, 301
European postwar conditions as viewed by, 12–13, 18, 62–63, 88, 89–90, 101, 110–11, 172, 242, 247–48, 253, 357–58, 394, 398–99
FDR compared with, 5, 8, 9, 12, 38, 40, 47, 62, 88–89, 91, 97, 98, 165, 182, 371–72
foreign aid policies of, 190–95, 225–26, 247–48, 258–62, 357–60
foreign policy of, 18, 24–25, 32–50, 56, 97, 175–76, 219, 229–30, 293–96, 301–2, 319–20, 398–99
German reconstruction supported by, 6, 8–9, 80–81, 89–90, 101, 190, 278–81, 287, 291, 293–94, 320–21, 357–60, 373, 379–80
Greek assistance approved by, 18, 32–36, 38, 39–41, 42, 44, 45–46, 49–50, 175
Kennan’s relationship with, 41–42, 92–93, 102–3, 262, 265, 267, 276, 320–21
Marshall Plan approved by, 110–11, 165–66, 175–76, 197, 200–201, 205, 212–13, 219–22, 225–30, 247–48, 253, 258–62, 263, 301–2, 320–21, 346, 357–58, 369–73, 398–99
Marshall’s relationship with, 34–35, 41, 55, 56, 59, 85, 110–11, 197, 205, 219, 293–96, 300, 301–2, 335
Molotov’s relationship with, 5–6, 10, 46, 48, 70, 265, 283, 293
Morgenthau’s policies as viewed by, 8–9, 80–81, 89–90
NATO supported by, 318–21, 335, 369–70, 379, 389, 394
at Potsdam conference, 5–9, 20–21, 62–63, 268
press coverage of, 45–46, 88, 221, 226, 228
Republican opposition to, 191–95, 197, 221–22, 225, 247–48, 301–2, 317–18, 346
Soviet policies of, 5, 8–9, 25, 32–34, 62–63, 85, 165, 175–76, 183, 219, 228, 242, 265, 278–83, 370–71, 372, 380
“Special Address to Congress on the Marshall Plan” (December 19, 1947) of, 197
“Special Message to Congress” (November 17, 1947) of, 212–13, 220
Stalin’s relationship with, 5–9, 24–25, 46–47, 62–63, 82, 165, 242, 267–69, 278, 282–83, 293–96, 389
Truman Doctrine of, 37–53, 82, 91–96, 102–3, 175–76, 183, 212, 220, 247–48, 252, 258, 259–60, 301–2, 370–71, 372, 433–39
Truman Doctrine speech to Congress (March 12, 1947) of, 37–53, 82, 91–96, 102–3, 433–39
Turkish assistance approved by, 24–25, 32–36, 38, 39–41, 42, 44, 45–46, 49–50, 175
Truman, Margaret, 43
Tunner, William, 292–93, 324, 430
Turkey, 11, 18, 22–26, 31–38, 39, 40–42, 45, 50, 51–52, 87, 94, 147, 157, 160, 175, 213, 259, 260, 342, 343, 392, 395
Turkish Straits, 24–26
Ukraine, 17, 73, 235, 297, 374, 386, 387, 388–89, 395, 396, 397–400, 402
Ulbricht, Walter, 79, 80, 209, 337, 430
unemployment rate, 66, 155, 309, 345, 354–55
unilateralism, 40, 58–59, 281–82, 341
Union of Soviet-Czechoslovak Friendship, 238–39
United Nations, ix–x, 2, 6, 18, 40, 49–50, 52, 82, 128, 175, 179–81, 212–13, 215, 228, 268, 281, 283, 287, 295–99, 304, 308–9, 311–12, 317–18, 341
United Nations Article 51, 317–18
United Nations Charter, 119, 212, 296, 392, 559n
United Nations General Assembly, 179, 296
United Nations Relief and Rehabilitation Administration (UNRRA), 40, 100, 128
United Nations Security Council, x, 2, 4, 6, 24, 25, 49, 295–99, 308–9, 317–18, 392, 394, 559n
United States:
air power of, 210, 250, 254, 271, 272–73, 291, 312
allies of, 231, 373, 375
anticommunism in, 7–8, 65, 71, 92–93, 193, 211
Communist Party of (CPUSA), 200, 267
defense spending by, 90–93, 226, 230, 316, 352, 355
dollar diplomacy of, 125, 154, 155, 159–60, 162, 164, 176–77, 208–9, 243, 306, 350
economy of, 159–60, 176–77, 197
elections (1948) in, 213, 219–20, 258, 282, 295, 301–2, 317, 413
foreign aid of, 34–35, 37, 38, 39–40, 98–101, 190–95, 225–26, 247–48, 258–62, 344–45, 357–60, 371, 373–75
“foreign entanglements” prohibition of, 1, 3, 13, 27, 43, 97, 320
foreign policy of, 1, 3, 13, 18, 24–25, 27, 32–50, 56, 97, 175–76, 219, 229–30, 293–96, 301–2, 319–20, 398–99
global trade of, 11, 88, 100–101, 165, 173
gross domestic product (GDP) of, 197
hegemony as goal of, 46, 90–93, 175–76, 337
imperialism of, 10, 49, 119–20, 175–76, 180, 182–83, 201, 228, 237, 239
military aid of, 16, 18–19, 21, 22, 26, 31–39, 40, 42, 44–52, 123–32, 223
national security of, 33, 35–36, 91–92, 248, 335
nuclear weapons of, 9–10, 12, 91, 105–6, 235, 282, 294, 321, 337
sphere of influence of, 2, 7, 47, 60, 241, 250, 340–41, 370–71, 404, 456, 566n
as superpower, 24, 35–36, 38, 40, 42–43, 161, 576n
taxation in, 34, 67, 76, 90, 192, 222, 270, 307
unilateralism of, 40, 58–59, 281–82, 341
United States of Europe, 101, 155, 402
U.S. zone, 64–65, 68, 89–90, 104, 209, 270, 286, 308, 329–30, 360–61
Vandenberg, Arthur, 9, 34, 35, 36, 39, 46, 49, 50, 81, 96–98, 192–93, 194, 196, 197, 212, 213, 221, 222, 226, 229, 232–33, 247–48, 249, 257, 258, 260, 262, 301–2, 317–20, 335, 373, 430
Vandenberg Amendment (Senate Resolution No. 239), 50, 317–18
van der Beugel, Ernst, 173–74, 305, 306, 430
Varga, Evgeny, 121, 430, 520n
Versailles Treaty, 393
Vienna, 18, 263
Vietnam War, 45
Viner, Jacob, 345
Vinson, Fred, 293–96, 312, 430–31
Visegrád countries, 385
Voice of America (VOA), 228–29, 315, 323
Volkskammer (People’s Chamber), 336
vozhd (leader), 58, 182, 312, 337
Vursell, Charles, 258–59, 431
Vyshinsky, Andrei, 46, 47–48, 128, 129, 157, 179, 180, 237, 242, 253, 296–98, 312, 313, 322, 329–33, 431
Waiting for Godot (Beckett), 351
Wałęsa, Lech, 385, 387, 431
Wallace, Henry, 8, 49, 94, 214–15, 216, 219–20, 267–69, 293, 431
Wall Street Journal, 210–11
War Department, U.S., 3, 12, 67, 86–87, 90, 103–4, 149, 151–52, 206, 228, 242
Warsaw Pact (1955), 275, 277, 379, 383–84, 387, 392, 393, 399
Washington, George, 1, 3, 13, 27, 43, 97, 320
Washing
ton Daily News, 45
Washington Post, 45, 104, 193, 213
Waterloo, Battle of, 132
Webb, James, 319–20, 325
Wellstone, Paul, 393, 431
Western Union Defence Organization, 251–52, 253
wheat, 170, 243–44, 298, 353
Wherry, Kenneth, 225–26, 431
White, Harry Dexter, 8–9, 11, 39, 89, 108, 270, 372, 431
White, Theodore, 193
White, William, 193, 431
Wiley, Alexander, 223, 431
Wilson, Woodrow, 2, 88, 431
winter conditions (1947), 346, 569n–70n
Wisner, Frank, 271, 315–16, 431
Women’s National Democratic Club, 201
Workers’ Party, 168
Works Progress Administration (WPA), 192
World Bank, 137, 197, 341, 569n
World Trade Organization (WTO), 373
World War I, 1–2, 6–7, 17, 23, 61, 62, 71, 88, 101, 336, 358, 393
World War II, 1–2, 6–7, 15–16, 39, 44, 74, 215, 241–42, 296, 317, 326, 342, 344, 357, 369
World War III, 51, 52, 69, 231, 248, 250, 256, 258, 278, 279–80, 281, 287, 294, 317, 332
Wörner, Manfred, 398, 431
Wrong, Humphrey Hume, 309, 432
“X” (George Kennan), 30–32, 255–56, 326, 328
Yalta Conference (1945), 3, 6, 24, 47, 58, 61–62, 74, 75, 79, 82, 88, 128, 202, 205–6, 223, 241, 255, 268, 269, 277, 279, 281, 341, 356
Yanukovych, Viktor, 397, 432
Yeltsin, Boris, 385, 387, 388, 391, 432
Yezhov, Nikolai, 339, 432
Yugoslavia, 16, 40, 48, 78–79, 93, 119, 133, 136, 148, 185, 193, 228, 245, 278, 331, 372, 392, 399
Zenkl, Petr, 143–44, 236, 432
Zhdanov, Andrei, 180, 181–85, 186, 230, 235, 257, 432, 509n
Zhukov, Georgy, 64, 65, 78, 107, 337, 357, 432
Zorin, Valerian, 237, 238–39, 432
ILLUSTRATION CREDITS
INTERIOR
p. xiv:
AFP/Getty Images, http://www.gettyimages.com/license/159224463
p. 14:
Public Domain
p. 54:
Everett Collection Inc./Alamy Stock Photo, accessible at http://www.marshallfilms.org/image/b47_03_10.jpg
p. 84:
Courtesy of the George C. Marshall Foundation, Lexington, Virginia
p. 116:
David E. Scherman/The LIFE Picture Collection/Getty Images, http://www.gettyimages.com/license/50863581
p. 146:
Yale Joel/The LIFE Picture Collection/Getty Images, http://www.gettyimages.co.uk/license/50773057
p. 178:
The Richard Nixon Presidential Library and Museum, file ID number A10-024.16.19.2; http://nixonfoundationblog.org/files/2014/04/RN-Herter-Committee-Northern-Italy-Fields-560x405.jpg
p. 218:
Underwood Archives/Getty Images, http://www.gettyimages.com/license/171014673
p. 234:
Bettmann Archive/Getty Images, http://www.gettyimages.co.uk/license/870261732
p. 246:
Courtesy of the George C. Marshall Foundation, Lexington, Virginia
p. 264:
Framepool, shot number 658-004-880; http://footage.framepool.com/en/shot/658004880-berlin-blockade-freedom-rally-dem-deutschen-volke-reichstag
p. 300:
Bettmann/Getty Images, http://www.gettyimages.com/license/514880324
p. 338:
Solo Syndication, cartoon by Leslie Gilbert Illingworth, ILW1566: Daily Mail 02/14/1949, accessible at https://timpanogos.wordpress.com/2012/09/08/chess-games-of-the-rich-and-famous-truman-vs-stalin-over-berlin/
p. 376:
DPA Picture Alliance/Alamy Stock Photo
p. 456:
Public Domain
p. 457:
W. W. Norton & Company, Inc.
p. 460:
Courtesy of Stratfor Worldview, a geopolitical intelligence platform, https://www.stratfor.com/analysis/geopolitics-russia-permanent-struggle
INSERT 1
1. Courtesy of the George C. Marshall Foundation, Lexington, Virginia
2. Courtesy of the George C. Marshall Foundation, Lexington, Virginia
3. Francis Miller/The LIFE Picture Collection/Getty Images, http://www.gettyimages.com/license/50615616
4. Bettmann/Getty Images, http://www.gettyimages.com/license/515241892
5. Keystone-France/Gamma-Keystone/Getty Images, http://www.gettyimages.com/license/106498810
6. Library of Congress/Corbis Historical Collection/VCG/Getty Images, http://www.gettyimages.com/license/640462363
7. Hulton Deutsch/Corbis Historical Collection/Getty Images, http://www.gettyimages.com/license/613515080
8. Walter Sanders/The LIFE Picture Collection/Getty Images, http://www.gettyimages.com/license/53369607
9. Hulton Deutsch/Corbis Historical Collection/Getty Images, http://www.gettyimages.com/license/613506876
10. Nat Farbman/The LIFE Picture Collection/Getty Images, http://www.gettyimages.com/license/50519421
11. Bettmann/Getty Images, http://www.gettyimages.com/license/515242992
INSERT 2
1. Bettmann/Getty Images, http://www.gettyimages.com/license/514697924
2. Bettmann/Getty Images, http://www.gettyimages.com/license/515301662
3. Bettmann Archive/Getty Images, http://www.gettyimages.com/license/515208442
4. Thomas D. McAvoy/The LIFE Picture Collection/Getty Images, http://www.gettyimages.com/license/50511717
5. Francis Miller/The LIFE Picture Collection/Getty Images, http://www.gettyimages.com/license/50447180
6. U.S. Embassy, accessible at http://spartacus-educational.com/JFKbohlen1.jpg
7. James Whitmore/The LIFE Picture Collection/Getty Images, http://www.gettyimages.com/license/50514205
8. U.S. Army Signal Corps, Courtesy of Harry S. Truman Library
9. George Skadding/The LIFE Picture Collection/Getty Images, http://www.gettyimages.com/license/50493391
10. U.S. Embassy, accessible at https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/8/83/Ambassador_Walter_Bedell_Smith.jpg
11. J. Wilds/Keystone/Getty Images, http://www.gettyimages.com/license/530231441
12. Abbie Rowe, National Park Service. Harry S. Truman Library & Museum
13. Hulton-Deutsch Collection/CORBIS/Corbis/Getty Images, http://www.gettyimages.com/license/613463476
14. Bert Hardy/Picture Post Collection/Getty Images, http://www.gettyimages.com/license/3435901
15. Marie Hansen/The LIFE Picture Collection/Getty Images, http://www.gettyimages.com/license/50497147
16. Margaret Bourke-White/The LIFE Picture Collection/Getty Images, http://www.gettyimages.com/license/50875038
17. Bert Hardy/Picture Post Collection/Getty Images, http://www.gettyimages.com/license/3296742
18. Yale Joel/The LIFE Picture Collection/Getty Images, http://www.gettyimages.com/license/53371537
19. Yale Joel/The LIFE Picture Collection/Getty Images, http://www.gettyimages.com/license/53371537
20. Bundesregierung/Rolf Unterberg, photo ID number B 145 Bild-00019708; https://www.bundesarchiv.de/imperia/md/images/abteilungen/abtb/bildarchiv/galerien/bundeskanzler/b_145_bild-00019708_501x0_0_0.jpg
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