8. IQ, 183–186.
9. IAA(2), 1: 16.
10. IQ, 49.
11. Ibid., 56–57; IAA(2), 1: 72–73, 80–81.
12. IAA(2), 1: 39–40.
13. Ibid., 1: 116.
14. AA, 535.
15. IAA(2), 1: 146, 164.
16. C. Hillenbrand, “The Career of Najm al-Dīn İl-Ghazi,” Der Islam 58, no. 2 (1981): 254–259.
17. IAA(2), 1: 56.
18. Ibid., 1: 173.
19. Ibid., 1: 197.
20. C. Hillenbrand, The Crusades: Islamic Perspectives (Edinburgh, 2006), 104–108.
21. See al-Sulami, The Book of the Jihad of ‘Ali ibn Tahir al-Sulami (d. 1106): Text, Translation and Commentary, ed. and trans. N. Christie (Aldershot, UK, 2015).
22. WC, 161; GN, 165; Ibn al-Furat, Ayyubids, Mamlukes and Crusaders: Selections from the Tārīkh al-Duwal wa’l-Mulūk, ed. and trans. U. Lyons and M. C. Lyons (Cambridge, 1971), 2: 45–46; C. Hillenbrand, “What’s in a Name? Tughtegin—‘The Minister of the Antichrist’?,” in Fortresses of the Intellect: Ismaili and Other Islamic Studies in Honour of Farhad Daftary, ed. Omar Ali-de-Onzaga (London, 2011), 469–471.
23. AA, 771; WC, 163; WT, 1: 544.
24. S. R. Candby et al., Court and Cosmos: The Great Age of the Seljuqs (New York, 2016), 66, 70.
25. WC, 150; AA, 771; ASC, 99. Hillenbrand, “What’s in a Name?,” 467–469.
26. WC, 86, 90, 101, 134.
27. Ibid., 161.
28. AA, 837; FC, 204.
29. IAA(2), 1: 160.
30. AA, 837; ASC, 85.
31. Usama ibn Munqidh, The Book of Contemplation: Islam and the Crusades, Penguin Classics (London, 2008), 131.
32. Asbridge, The Creation of the Principality of Antioch, 165–166.
33. William of Malmesbury, Gesta Regum Anglorum, ed. and trans. R. A. B. Mynors, R. M. Thomson, and M. Winterbottom, vol. 1, Oxford Medieval Texts (Oxford, 1998), 695.
34. FC, 227.
35. WC, 111–113; AA, 841–843.
36. WC, 112–113.
37. There is an ongoing debate surrounding the willingness of medieval commanders to give battle. For a starting point to this conversation, see J. Gillingham, “Richard I and the Science of War in the Middle Ages,” in Anglo-Norman Warfare, ed. M. Strickland (Woodbridge, UK, 1992), 194–207; J. France, “The Crusades and Military History,” in Chemins d’Outre-Mer: Études d’histoire sur la Méditerranée médiévale offertes à Michel Balard, ed. D. Coulon et al. (Paris, 2004), 345–352; R. C. Smail, Crusading Warfare: 1097–1193, 2nd ed. (Cambridge, 1995), 138–139.
38. WC, 115.
39. R. Ellenblum, Crusader Castles and Modern Histories (Cambridge, 2007), 170–177.
40. C. Yovitchitch, “Bosra: Eine Zitadelle des Fürstentums Damaskus,” in Burgen und Städte der Kreuzzugszeit, ed. M. Piana (Petersberg, Germany, 2008), 169–177.
41. D. M. Metcalf, “Six Unresolved Problems in the Monetary History of Antioch, 969–1268,” in East and West in the Medieval Eastern Mediterranean I: Antioch from the Byzantine Reconquest until the End of the Crusader Principality, ed. K. Ciggaar and M. Metcalf (Leuven, Belgium, 2006), 285.
42. WT, 2: 514–515.
43. H. Kennedy, Crusader Castles (Cambridge, 1994), 84–96.
44. J. Phillips, The Crusades: 1095–1204, 2nd ed. (Abingdon, UK, 2014), 105.
45. Kennedy, Crusader Castles, 97.
46. WC, 115–118.
47. Ibid., 119–120.
48. ASC, 87.
49. IAA(2), 1: 204; IQ, 160; ME, 223; KAD, 616.
50. IAA(2), 1: 214–215.
51. KAD, 617.
52. Ibid., 617.
53. J. France, “Warfare in the Mediterranean Region in the Age of the Crusades, 1095–1291: A Clash of Contrasts,” in The Crusades and the Near East: Cultural Histories, ed. C. Kostick (Abingdon, UK, 2011), 9–26.
54. Ibn Fadlan, Ibn Fadlān and the Land of Darkness, trans. P. Lunde and C. Stone, Penguin Classics (London, 2012), 20.
55. Translation of Abu’l-Hasan ‘Ali al-Harawi’s work, taken from N. Christie, Muslims and Crusaders: Christianity’s Wars in the Middle East, 1095–1382, from Islamic Sources (Abingdon, UK, 2014), 147.
56. For discussion, see Candby et al., Court and Cosmos, 145; A. C. S. Peacock, Early Seljūq History: A New Interpretation, Routledge Studies in the History of Iran and Turkey (Abingdon, UK, 2010), 76.
57. IAA(2), 1: 204; IQ, 160; ME, 224.
58. WC, 128.
59. IAA(2), 2: 185.
60. UIM, 71.
61. J. France, Western Warfare in the Age of the Crusades, 1000–1300 (Ithaca, NY, 1999), 26.
62. Decrees of the Ecumenical Councils, vol. 1, Nicaea I–Lateran V, ed. N. P. Tanner (London and Washington, 1990), 203.
63. WC, 128–129.
64. Ibid., 128.
65. Ibid., 127.
66. William of Malmesbury, Gesta Regum Anglorum, 1: 695.
67. OV, 6: 131.
68. WC, 132.
69. IQ, 160.
70. Bar Hebraeus, The Chronography of Gregory Abû’l Faraj: The Son of Aaron, the Hebrew Physician Commonly Known as Bar Hebraeus, trans. E. Wallis Budge (Oxford, 1932), 1: 249.
71. WC, 136; KAD, 620; IAA(2), 1: 205; WC, 151, n204. For a thorough assessment of the full territorial losses suffered by Antioch, see T. Asbridge, “The Significance and Causes of the Battle of the Field of Blood,” Journal of Medieval History 23, no. 4 (1997): 303–304; Asbridge, The Creation of the Principality of Antioch, 80.
72. IQ, 161.
73. WC, 144.
74. KAD, 620; FC, 228.
75. WC, 150.
76. Ibid., 153–154. The armies of both Jerusalem and Antioch bore great crosses into battle as their standards. The Jerusalemite cross contained within it the bulk of the True Cross of the Crucifixion that was discovered soon after the First Crusade, and the Antiochene cross contained a fragment of the “True Cross.”
77. ME, 224.
78. See, for example, ME, 224.
79. KAD, 621.
80. See WC, 156–171; KAD, 622; UIM, 131–132.
81. WC, 165.
82. IAA(2), 1: 204–205.
83. ME, 223.
84. Asbridge, The Creation of the Principality of Antioch, 80.
85. Ibid., 80–81.
86. See Asbridge, “The Significance and Causes of the Battle of the Field of Blood,” 306.
87. J. Phillips, Defenders of the Holy Land: Relations Between the Latin East and the West, 1119–1187 (Oxford, 1996), 14.
88. WC, 77–84.
89. Phillips, Defenders of the Holy Land, 14.
90. For discussion of the council, see B. Z. Kedar, “On the Earliest Laws of Frankish Jerusalem: The Canons of the Council of Nablus, 1120,” Speculum 74, no. 2 (1999): 310–335; M. E. Mayer, “The Concordat of Nablus,” Journal of Ecclesiastical History 33, no. 4 (1982): 531–543.
91. M. Barber, The New Knighthood: A History of the Order of the Temple (Cambridge, 1994), 9.
CHAPTER 4: FIELDS OF BLOOD (1120–1128)
1. The History of David King of Kings,” in Rewriting Caucasian History: The Medieval Armenian Adaptation of the Georgian Chronicles, trans. R. W. Thomson (Oxford, 1996), 333; IQ, 164; ME, 226.
2. KAD, 627–629.
3. Ibid., 629.
4. Ibid., 630.
5. IAA(2), 1: 261, 231.
6. KAD, 632.
7. AA, 177–179.
8. IQ, 50–51.
9. IAA(2), 1: 76.
10. Ibid., 1: 93–94; ME, 215.
11. KAD, 631.
12. ASC, 90–91; FC, 237; IAA(2), 1: 232; ME, 228.
13. ME, 229; FC, 239–240; IQ, 167.
14. KAD, 636.
15. ASC, 92.
16. WT, 1: 540.
17. C. MacEvitt, The Crusades and the Christian World of the East: Rough Tolerance (Philadelphia, 2008).
18. However, as T. L. Andrews points out, the notion that the Franks were their prophesied saviors seems t
o have faded over time, at least for the important Armenian writer Matthew of Edessa. T. L. Andrews, Matt‘ēos Urhayec‘i and His Chronicle: History as Apocalypse in a Crossroads of Cultures (Leiden: Brill, 2017), 121–138.
19. For further discussion, see MacEvitt, The Crusades and the Christian World of the East.
20. ME, 230.
21. FC, 249.
22. ASC, 93; WT, 1: 544.
23. ASC, 93.
24. Ibid., 94.
25. IQ, 169–170; KAD, 640.
26. ASC, 94; FC, 262–263; KAD, 641–642.
27. ME, 232.
28. Translation taken from C. Hillenbrand, The Crusades: Islamic Perspectives (Edinburgh, 2006), 110.
29. UIM, 132.
30. V. Klemm, Memoirs of a Mission: The Ismaili Scholar, Statesman and Poet, Al-Mu’ayyad Fi’l-Din Al-Shirazi (London, 2003), 82.
31. IAA(2), 1: 37–124.
32. Ibid., 1: 124.
33. Ibid., 1: 129.
34. Ibid., 1: 210–213.
35. WC, 150; KAD, 626–628.
36. IAA(2), 1: 242–244.
37. KAD, 644.
38. IAA(2), 1: 244.
39. KAD, 645.
40. Ibid., 647.
41. Ibid., 647–648.
42. IAA(2), 1: 254.
43. Ibid., 1: 129.
44. FC, 274.
45. ASC, 96.
46. ME, 234.
47. A. Murray, “Baldwin II and His Nobles: Baronial Factionalism and Dissent in the Kingdom of Jerusalem, 1118–1134,” Nottingham Medieval Studies 38 (1994): 69–75.
48. ASC, 97.
49. Ibid., 97.
50. FC, 240–241.
51. J. Pryor, Geography, Technology and War: Studies in the Maritime History of the Mediterranean, 649–1571 (Cambridge, 1988), 114.
52. J. Pryor, “A View from the Masthead: The First Crusade from the Sea,” Crusades 7 (2008): 102.
53. Guibert of Nogent, “Un épisode de la lutte entre Baudouin Ier et les habitants d’Ascalon,” in Guitberti Abbatis Sanctae Marie Novigenti: Historia quae inscribitur Dei gesta per Francos et cinq autres textes, ed. R. B. C. Huygens, Corpus Christianorum Continuatio Mediaeualis 127A (Turnhout, Belgium, 1996), 255.
54. For discussion of this crusade, see D. E. Queller and I. B. Katele, “Venice and the Conquest of the Latin Kingdom of Jerusalem,” Studi Veneziani 12 (1986): 15–43; J. Riley-Smith, “The Venetian Crusade of 1122–1124,” in I Communi italiani nel regno crociato di Gerusalemme, ed. G. Airaldi and B. Z. Kedar (Genoa, 1986), 337–350.
55. WT, 2: 10–11.
56. Ibid., 2: 14.
57. Ibid., 2: 16.
58. T. Asbridge, “How the Crusades Could Have Been Won: King Baldwin II of Jerusalem’s Campaigns Against Aleppo (1124–5) and Damascus (1129),” Journal of Medieval Military History, ed. C. J. Rogers and K. DeVries, 11 (2013): 73–93.
59. This story and the translated passage can be found in OV, 6: 109–127; quoted passage on 127.
60. William of Malmesbury, Gesta Regum Anglorum, ed. and trans. R. A. B. Mynors, R. M. Thomson, and M. Winterbottom, vol. 1, Oxford Medieval Texts (Oxford, 1998), 524; UIM, 124.
61. William of Newburgh, “The History of William of Newburgh,” in The Church Historians of England, trans. Rev. J. Stevenson, vol. 4, part 1 (London, 1856), 535.
62. OV, 6: 135; WT, 1: 33.
63. ME, 237; ASC, 99.
64. UIM, 133.
65. KAD, 656.
66. For an authoritative and recent biography of Zangi, see T. El-Azhari, Zengi and the Muslim Response to the Crusades: The Politics of Jihad (Abingdon, UK, 2016).
67. Ibid., passim.
68. Indeed, Andrew Buck has suggested that the principality reached its greatest territorial extent in 1130. See A. D. Buck, The Principality of Antioch and Its Frontiers in the Twelfth Century (Woodbridge, UK, 2017), 21.
CHAPTER 5: AFTERMATH (1128–1187)
1. ME, 231.
2. J. J. S. Weitenberg, “The Armenian Monasteries in the Black Mountain,” in East and West in the Medieval Eastern Mediterranean I: Antioch from the Byzantine Reconquest until the End of the Crusader Principality, ed. K. Ciggaar and M. Metcalf (Leuven, Belgium, 2006), 90.
3. S. K. Raphael, Climate and Political Change: Environmental Disasters in the Medieval Levant (Leiden, 2013), 32.
4. B. Major, Medieval Rural Settlements in the Syrian Coastal Region (12th and 13th Centuries), Archaeolingua Central European Archaeological Heritage Series 9 (Oxford, 2015), 136; H. E. Mayer, Varia Antiochena: Studien zum Kreuzfahrerfürstentum Antiochia im 12. und frühen 13. Jahrhundert (Hannover, 1993), 164–165.
5. A. D. Buck, “The Castle and Lordship of Hārim and the Frankish-Muslim Frontier of Northern Syria in the Twelfth Century,” Al-Masāq: Journal of the Medieval Mediterranean 28, no. 2 (2016): 113–131.
6. Major, Medieval Rural Settlements in the Syrian Coastal Region.
7. See D. Jacoby, “Frankish Beirut: A Minor Economic Centre,” in Crusader Landscapes in the Medieval Levant: The Archaeology and History of the Latin East, ed. M. Sinibaldi, K. J. Lewis, B. Major, and J. A. Thompson (Cardiff, 2016), 263–276.
8. For the key study on Frankish rural settlement, see R. Ellenblum, Frankish Rural Settlement in the Latin Kingdom of Jerusalem (Cambridge, 1998). A. J. Boas, “Domestic Life in the Latin East,” in The Crusader World, ed. A. J. Boas (London, 2016), 553–554.
9. A. Boas, Domestic Settings: Sources on Domestic Architecture and Day-to-Day Activities in the Crusader States, Medieval Mediterranean 84 (Leiden, 2010), 136.
10. Ellenblum, Frankish Rural Settlement in the Latin Kingdom of Jerusalem, 283. This work has been foundational in offering this bird’s-eye view of the Kingdom of Jerusalem.
11. The Travels of Ibn Jubayr: A Mediaeval Spanish Muslim Visits Makkah, Madinah, Egypt, Cities of the Middle East and Sicily, trans. R. Broadhurst (London, 1952), 316–317.
12. Boas, Domestic Settings, 217–218 and passim; Boas, “Domestic Life in the Latin East,” 545.
13. B. Z. Kedar, “The Subjected Muslims of the Frankish Levant,” in The Crusades: The Essential Readings, ed. T. Madden (Malden, MA, 2002), 233–264.
14. E. Yehuda, “Frankish Street Settlements and the Status of Their Inhabitants in the Society of the Latin Kingdom of Jerusalem,” unpublished paper.
15. A. J. Boas, Jerusalem in the Time of the Crusades (Abingdon, UK, 2001).
16. D. Pringle, The Churches of the Crusader Kingdom of Jerusalem: A Corpus, vol. 3, The City of Jerusalem (Cambridge, 2007), 397–434; Boas, “Domestic Life in the Latin East,” 561–562.
17. A. D. Buck, The Principality of Antioch and Its Frontiers in the Twelfth Century (Woodbridge, UK, 2017), 36.
18. T. El-Azhari, Zengi and the Muslim Response to the Crusades: The Politics of Jihad (Abingdon, UK, 2016), passim.
19. IQ, 271.
20. El-Azhari, Zengi and the Muslim Response to the Crusades, 137–143.
21. For discussion, see D. Talmon-Heller, Islamic Piety in Medieval Syria: Mosques, Cemeteries, and Sermons under the Zangids and Ayyūbids (1146–1260) (Boston, 2007); N. Christie, Muslims and Crusaders: Christianity’s Wars in the Middle East, 1095–1382, from the Islamic Sources (Abingdon, UK, 2014), 36–41; El-Azhari, Zengi and the Muslim Response to the Crusades, 137–141.
22. C. Hillenbrand, The Crusades: Islamic Perspectives (Edinburgh, 2006), 151–152.
23. For discussion, see J. Phillips, The Second Crusade: Extending the Frontiers of Christendom (New Haven, 2007).
24. IQ, 318–319.
25. WT, 2: 230–234.
26. Buck, “The Castle and Lordship of H.ārim,” 113–131.
27. IAA(2), 1: 141; WT, 2: 306.
28. For an introduction to the military orders, see N. Morton, The Medieval Military Orders (Abingdon, UK, 2014).
29. The main accounts for the wars between King Amalric of Jerusalem and Nur al-Din over Egypt are IAA(2), 1: 138–184; WT, 2: 302–369.
30. B. A. Catlos, Infidel Kings and Unholy
Warriors: Faith, Power and Violence in the Age of Crusade and Jihad (New York, 2014), 234–235.
31. WT, 2: 350–358.
32. H. Nicholson, The Knights Templar: A New History (Stroud, UK, 2005), 69–70; WT, 2: 350; IAA(2), 2: 172; WT, 2: 348.
33. IAA(2), 2: 198–199, 221.
34. M. C. Lyons and D. E. P. Jackson, Saladin: The Politics of the Holy War (Cambridge, 2001), 75.
35. For an excellent account of Saladin’s early rise to power, see ibid.
36. Quotation taken from Lyons and Jackson, Saladin, 199.
37. See, for example, P. Lock, The Routledge Companion to the Crusades (Abingdon, UK, 2006), 250.
38. For a selection of recent and/or influential views on this topic, see Christie, Muslims and Crusaders, 48–52; Lyons and Jackson, Saladin, passim; J. Phillips, Holy Warriors: A Modern History of the Crusades (London, 2009), 165; T. Asbridge, The Crusades: The Authoritative History of the War for the Holy Land (New York, 2010), 335–336; Hillenbrand, The Crusades, 175–195.
39. “The Old French Continuation of William of Tyre, 1184–1197,” in The Conquest of Jerusalem and the Third Crusade: Sources in Translation, ed. and trans. P. Edbury, Crusade Texts in Translation 1 (Aldershot, UK, 1998), 36–38.
40. WT, 2: 471–501.
41. These estimates are loosely based on those offered by Martin Hoch in “Hattin, Battle of,” in The Crusades: An Encyclopedia, ed. A. Murray (Santa Barbara, 2006), 2: 559.
42. For a detailed account of the Battle of Hattin, see B. Z. Kedar, “The Battle of Hattin Revisited,” in The Horns of Hattin, ed. B. Z. Kedar (Jerusalem, 1992), 190–207. For a more recent study, see J. France, Great Battles: Hattin (Oxford, 2015).
43. In some cases the attack destroyed the former relationship established between the Franks and the urban population; in other cases the relationship had already collapsed a short time before.
44. WT, 2: 227.
FURTHER READING
There are many very helpfully written books, both on the Crusader States and on the Muslim world of the medieval Near East. In what follows I have supplied references to some of the most useful and influential. These texts have been chosen because they represent some of the most recent and comprehensive summaries of the archaeological and textual sources. I have also supplied references to many of the key primary sources written during the medieval period that provide insight into the ideas and perspectives that were circulating at the time of the Crusades.
The Field of Blood: The Battle for Aleppo and the Remaking of the Medieval Middle East Page 23
