More recently I must thank Sam Bowles, Jean Briggs, Jessica Flack, Herb Gintis, Jonathan Haidt, Kim Hill, Jim Hopgood, Mel Konner, Deirdre Mullane, Randolph Nesse, Judy Vinegar, Polly Wiessner, and Frans de Waal for detailed comments on the present manuscript, and I also wish to thank Richard Wrangham for sharing an unpublished book manuscript in which the importance of prehistoric capital punishment’s acting on gene pools was emphasized, as an instance of “autodomestication.”
At Basic Books I wish to thank their excellent editorial staff for the help they have offered, including T. J. Kelleher, Tisse Takagi, and Collin Tracy.
Kristin Howard’s work as hunter-gatherer research assistant has been impeccable, and I thank my daughter, Jennifer Morrissey, for her work in creating the index. I must give special thanks to Jane Goodall, who trained me in ethological field techniques. In addition I thank my agent, Deirdre Mullane, for the substantial help and support that helped this writing project to succeed, and my colleague Don Lamm for encouraging the project over a period of several years.
Finally I must pay homage to two late mentors. One was anthropologist Paul J. Bohannan, who encouraged me to take up primatology as a cultural anthropologist; the other was psychologist Donald T. Campbell, to whom the book is dedicated. It was Don Campbell who suggested that I leave linguistic anthropology and become an evolutionist.
NOTES
NOTES TO CHAPTER 1: DARWIN’S INNER VOICE
1. See Richards 1989.
2. See Darwin 1859.
3. See ibid.
4. See ibid.
5. See ibid.
6. See Campbell 1975.
7. See Campbell 1965.
8. See Malthus 1985 (1798).
9. See Spencer 1851.
10. See Lyell 1833.
11. See Flack and de Waal 2000.
12. See Darwin 1982 (1871), 71–72.
13. See Campbell 1975; see also Alexander 1974 and Wilson 1975.
14. See Hamilton 1964.
15. See Darwin 1982 (1871).
16. See Williams 1966.
17. See Wilson 1975.
18. See West et al. 2007.
19. See Wilson 1975 for an assessment of how genetic preparations make certain behaviors very easy to learn and how genetic leashes constrain behavior at the level of phenotype.
20. See ibid.
21. See Boehm and Flack 2010.
22. See Boehm 1979 and Boehm 2009; see also Sober and Wilson 1998.
23. See Boehm 2004a and Boehm 2008a.
24. See Kelly 1995.
25. See Alexander 1987.
26. See Boehm 2008b.
27. See Wilson and Wilson 2007.
28. See Darwin 1982 (1871), 98.
29. See Wilson and Wilson 2007.
30. See Darwin 1865 and Darwin 1982 (1871).
31. See Alexander 1987.
32. See Boehm 1997.
33. See West-Eberhard 1983; see also Nesse 2007, Bowles and Gintis 2011, Boehm 1978, Boehm 1991a, and Boehm 2008b.
34. See Boehm 1991b.
35. See Campbell 1965.
36. See Mayr 1988.
37. In this sense, humans have actually constructed part of the environment they are adapted to. See, for example, Boehm and Flack 2010; see also Laland et al. 2000.
38. Darwin talked about “sympathy” as a basis for humans and other social animals sacrificing their own interests to assist others, be they kin, nonkin, or even members of other species. Today, a number of researchers have investigated empathy as a way of understanding the emotions and cognitions that impel us to feel for others and assist them. There appear to be various types of empathy as well as differing academic definitions (see, for example, Batson 2011, Flack and de Waal 2000, Preston and de Waal 2002, and de Waal 2009), so basically I shall stay with Darwin’s more general-purpose term: sympathy.
NOTES TO CHAPTER 2: LIVING THE VIRTUOUS LIFE
1. See Piers and Singer 1971 for an interesting treatment of anthropological research on shame and guilt.
2. See Casimir and Schnegg 2002.
3. See Darwin 1982 (1871).
4. There is a fascinating study, conducted at a Siberian fox farm, that supports this view. See Trut et al. 2009.
5. See Lindsay 2000.
6. See Damasio 2002.
7. See Damasio et al. 1994. The Phineas Gage case history is particularly evocative for me because my maternal grandfather, William Askey of the Erskine clan, whose father emigrated from Scotland, was a foreman with the Baltimore and Ohio Railroad in western Maryland. He wore a glass eye that replaced the one he had lost in a similar but less traumatic accident.
8. See Damasio 2002.
9. See Hare 1993.
10. See Parsons and Shils 1952; see also Gintis 2003.
11. See Darwin 1982 (1871).
12. See Kiehl 2008; see also Kiehl et al. 2006.
13. See Freud 1918.
14. See Frank 1988.
15. See Alexander 1987, 102.
16. See Faulkner 1954.
17. See Batson 2009.
18. See Dunbar 1996.
19. See Boehm 1993.
20. See Turnbull 1961.
21. See Boehm 2004b.
22. See Turnbull 1961. The extensive quotations are to be found in Colin Turnbull’s (1961) The Forest People, Chapter 5, “The Crime of Cephu, the Bad Hunter,” 94–108.
23. See Lee 1979, 244.
24. See ibid., 246.
25. See Durham 1991.
26. See Wiessner 2002.
NOTES TO CHAPTER 3: OF ALTRUISM AND FREE RIDERS
1. See Campbell 1975; see also Boehm 2009.
2. See Campbell 1972. See Sober and Wilson 1998, 142–149, for a fuller treatment of how altruism can be socially “amplified,” and Boehm 2004a.
3. See Fehr and Gächter 2002; see also Henrich et al. 2005 and Hammerstein and Hagen 2004. Generous moves in experimental games can lead to reciprocation in kind.
4. See Boehm 2008b.
5. This holds for the !Kung according to Polly Wiessner (personal communication).
6. See Gurven et al. 2001.
7. Ibid; see also Alexander 1987.
8. See Smith and Boyd 1990 and Wiessner 1982.
9. See Malinowski 1922.
10. See Gurven et al. 2001.
11. See Service 1975.
12. See Campbell 1975.
13. See Sober and Wilson 1998.
14. See Campbell 1972, 1975.
15. See, for instance, Aberle et al. 1950 for an academic view of what it takes to keep a society going.
16. See Eibl-Eibesfeldt 1982; see also Gintis 2003 and Simon 1990.
17. See Boehm 2009.
18. See Darwin 1982 (1871).
19. See Williams 1966.
20. See Sherman et al. 1991.
21. See Wilson 1975.
22. See Irons 1991 for one answer to this question; see also Lewontin 1970.
23. See Alexander 1987; see also Black 2011, Boehm 2000, Boehm 2008b, Boyd and Richerson 1992, and Simon 1990.
24. See, for example, Preston and de Waal 2002; see also Flack and de Waal 2000.
25. See Batson 2009 and de Waal 2009 for technical treatments of human sympathy that use “empathy” as a more carefully defined, scientific term that has found its way into our everyday vocabularies.
26. See Darwin 1982 (1871).
27. I borrow this terminology from Donald T. Campbell’s writings on altruism. See Campbell 1975.
28. See Williams 1966, 205.
29. See ibid., 203–204.
30. See ibid. For an example of this theory being put to use, see Boehm 1981. This application involves macaque monkeys, and the hypothesis is that costly alpha-male pacifying interventions in adult fights are altruistic and that they are an extension of females’ stopping fights among offspring, which pay off handsomely because of kin selection. The theory is that the alpha’s interventions—those that protect unrelated adults—are genetically piggybacking on the maternal interventions that pr
otect offspring.
31. There are a number of ways of looking at altruism (see West et al. 2007), and here I have organized this effort in terms that should be both unambiguous and understandable to general readers. In doing so, I have restricted the meaning of altruism to costly generosity that is extrafamilial.
32. See Hill et al. 2011.
33. See, for example, Gintis 2003 and Simon 1990; see also Alexander 2006.
34. In biology, pleiotropy means that the same gene can have two or more disparate effects.
35. Piggybacking means that as an instance of pleiotropy, a useful trait may “carry” a somewhat deleterious trait that is set up by the same gene. This can work as long as the useful trait is strongly selected and the piggybacking trait isn’t too costly. See Gintis 2003.
36. See Bowles 2006; see also Sober and Wilson 1998.
37. See Mayr 2001.
38. See Wilson 1975; see also ibid.
39. See Alexander 1979; see also Wilson 1975 and Trivers 1971.
40. See Bowles 2006 and Bowles 2009.
41. See Trivers 1971.
42. See, for instance, Allen-Arave et al. 2008.
43. See Stevens et al. 2005.
44. See Alexander 1987.
45. See Kaplan and Hill 1985; see also Allen-Arave et al. 2008 for an example having to do with nepotistic food transfers, and Kaplan and Gurven 2005 for an overview.
46. See, for example, Alexander 2006, Brown et al. 2003, and Hammerstein and Hoekstra 2002.
47. See Marlowe 2010.
48. See Alexander 1987.
49. See ibid.
50. See, for instance, Bird et al. 2001; see also Zahavi 1995. Costly signaling is more narrowly conceived than Alexander’s original idea of selection by reputation, which is gossip based and involves far more than hunting prowess and can involve signals that are not indicative of fitness.
51. See Gurven et al. 2000; see also Henrich et al. 2005, Kaplan and Hill 1985, Nowak and Sigmund 2005, Wiessner 1982, and Wiessner 2002.
52. See Alexander 1987.
53. See Boehm 1997 and Boehm 2000.
54. See Williams 1966; see also Trivers 1971.
55. See Wilson and Wilson 2007.
56. See Alexander 1987.
57. See Cosmides et al. 2005; see also Trivers 1971, Williams 1966, and Wilson 1975.
58. See Boehm 1997 and Cummins 1999.
59. See Ellis 1995; see also Betzig 1986.
60. See Boehm 1999 and Boehm 2004a.
61. See Boehm 1999; see also Erdal and Whiten 1994.
62. See Cosmides et al. 2005.
63. See Boehm 1993; see also Erdal and Whiten 1994.
64. See Boehm 1997.
65. See Frank 1995.
66. See Fehr et al. 2008.
67. See Boehm 1999.
68. See Williams 1966.
69. See Boyd and Richerson 1992.
70. See Boehm 1993.
71. See Wiessner 2005a and 2005b; see also Lee 1979.
72. See Briggs 1970, 44.
73. See ibid., 47.
74. See ibid.
75. See ibid.
76. See Boehm 1993.
77. See also Bowles 2006.
78. See Hill et al. 2011.
79. See Bowles 2006 and Bowles 2009; see also Choi and Bowles 2007.
80. In the past, I have tried to give group selection every benefit of the doubt at a time when such theory was far more controversial than it is today; see, for example, Boehm 1993, Boehm 1996, Boehm 1997, and Boehm 1999. The free-rider suppression that is emphasized in this book addresses a major problem with group selection models as these were originally attacked by Williams (1966) and should add to the viability of group selection theory as applied to humans.
81. See West-Eberhard 1979, West-Eberhard 1983, and Wolf et al. 1999 for a broader perspective.
82. I thank Randolph Nesse for the suggestion that no single mechanism is likely to fully explain human altruism; see also Gurven and Hill 2010.
NOTES TO CHAPTER 4: KNOWING OUR IMMEDIATE PREDECESSORS
1. See Klein 1999.
2. See Kelly 1995; see also Service 1975.
3. See Burroughs 2005.
4. See Gould 1982.
5. See Dyson-Hudson and Smith 1978.
6. See Kelly 2000.
7. See Bowles 2006.
8. Unfortunately, the most detailed study, by Turnbull 1972, is of relocated hunter-gatherers for whom no baseline study exists.
9. See Balikci 1970; see also Mirsky 1937 and Riches 1974.
10. See Lee 1979.
11. See, for instance, Kelly 1995; see also Service 1975. Lawrence Keeley (1988) is an exception; he compiled a list of ninety-four economically independent foragers to investigate variations in prehistoric behavior with respect to population pressure and socioeconomic complexity.
12. See Steward 1955.
13. See Boehm 2002 and Boehm 2012.
14. See Binford 2001.
15. See also Keeley 1988.
16. See Boehm 2012.
17. See Klein 1999.
18. See ibid.
19. See Marlowe 2005 for some of the information just cited.
20. See Klein 1999.
21. See Hill et al. 2011.
22. See Kelly 1995.
23. See Potts 1996.
24. See Gould 1982; see also Steward 1938.
25. See McBrearty and Brooks 2000.
26. See Fleagle and Gilbert 2008.
27. See Boehm 1999.
28. See Lee 1979.
29. See Boehm 2008b; see also West-Eberhard 1979 and West-Eberhard 1983.
30. See, for instance, Wilson 1978.
NOTES TO CHAPTER 5: RESURRECTING SOME VENERABLE ANCESTORS
1. See Flack and de Waal 2000.
2. See Watson and Crick 1953.
3. See Ruvolo et al. 1991.
4. See Boehm 2004b.
5. See Wrangham 1987.
6. See Brosnan 2006.
7. See Wrangham 1987.
8. Homology means, for instance, that two species exhibit a similar behavior because their genetic makeups are similar, and in turn this means that the behaviors are based on similar psychological mechanisms.
9. See Wrangham and Peterson 1996.
10. I first heard this term being used by my colleague Martin Muller, who is a primatologist at the University of New Mexico.
11. See Barnett 1958 and Lore et al. 1984.
12. See Wrangham and Peterson 1996.
13. See Boehm 1999.
14. See Boehm 1993.
15. See Erdal and Whiten 1994 for the origin of the term “counterdomination.”
16. See Hrdy 2009.
17. See Klein 1999.
18. See Keenan et al. 2003; see also Kagan and Lamb 1987.
19. See Malinowski 1929.
20. See Boehm 2000.
21. See Boehm 1999.
22. Cultural transmission is discussed by Boyd and Richerson 1985, while gene-culture evolution is explored by Durham 1991, with in-depth ethnographic exemplification.
23. See Darwin 1982 (1871).
24. See Damasio 2002.
25. See Gallup et al. 2002.
26. See Bearzi and Stanford 2008.
27. See Mead 1934.
28. See Gallup et al. 2002.
29. See, for instance, Bearzi and Stanford 2008.
30. See Gardner and Gardner 1994.
31. See Menzel 1974.
32. See de Waal 1982.
33. See Goodall 1986.
34. See Whiten and Byrne 1988.
35. See Diamond 1992.
36. See Durkheim 1933.
37. See de Waal and Lanting 1997.
38. See Lee 1979.
39. See Kano 1992.
40. See Parker 2007.
41. See de Waal 1982.
42. See Goodall 1986.
43. See Goodall 1992 and Nishida 1996; see also de Waal 1986 and Ladd
and Mahoney 2011.
44. See de Waal 1996 and Fla
ck and de Waal 2000; see also McCullough et al. 2008.
45. See de Waal 1996, 91–92.
46. See, for example, Gardner and Gardner 1994; see also Savage-Rumbaugh and Lewin 1994.
47. See Goodall 1986.
48. With respect to apes’ learning American Sign Language, see Gardner and Gardner 1994 and Patterson and Linden 1981.
49. See Savage-Rumbaugh and Lewin 1994.
50. See Temerlin 1975, 120–121.
51. See Boehm 1980.
52. See de Waal 1982.
53. See de Waal 1996.
54. See Fouts 1997, 156.
55. See also Whiten and Byrne 1988.
56. See Savage-Rumbaugh et al. 1998, 52.
57. See ibid., 52–53.
58. See Fouts 1997, 151–152.
59. See Patterson and Linden 1981.
60. See ibid., 39.
61. See Flack and de Waal 2000; see also Preston and de Waal 2002 for a discussion of different types of empathy.
NOTES TO CHAPTER 6: A NATURAL GARDEN OF EDEN
1. See Cavalli-Sforza and Edwards 1967.
2. See Wrangham and Peterson 1996.
3. See Pinker 2011.
4. See Bowles and Gintis 2011.
5. See, for instance, Goodall 1986.
6. See, for example, Burch 2005.
7. See Kano 1992.
8. See ibid.
9. See Furíuchi 2011, see also de Waal and Lanting 1997.
10. See Bowles 2006 and Bowles 2009.
11. See Sober and Wilson 1998.
12. See LeVine and Campbell 1972.
13. See ibid.
14. See Keeley 1996.
15. See Bowles 2006.
16. See ibid.
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