‘building practices’: Chesapeake: Garrett Fesler, ‘Excavating the Spaces and Interpreting the Places of Enslaved Africans and Their Descendants’, Ellis and Ginsburg, Cabin, Quarter, Plantation, pp. 33–43.
‘the entire population’: northern colonies: the figure of six or seven people is for Massachusetts Bay and Rhode Island, Edward Shorter, The Making of the Modern Family (London, Collins, 1976), p. 30; Henri IV’s architect: Witold Rybczynski, Home: A Short History of an Idea (London, Heinemann, 1988), p. 39; British room occupancy: Lorna Weatherill, Consumer Behaviour and Material Culture in Britain, 1660–1760 (2nd edn, London, Routledge, 1996), p. 94, based on inventories, which by definition leave out the great mass of the labouring poor. The suggested revision is my own; demolition: John Burnett, A Social History of Housing, 1815–1985 (London, Methuen, 1978), pp. 36–7, 46.
‘with strangers’: 1801: Larkin, Reshaping of Everyday Life, p. 11; 2012: ‘Families and Households, 2012’, Office for National Statistics, Statistical Bulletin, released 1 November 2012, http://www.ons.gov.uk/ons/rel/family-demography/families-and-households/2012/index.html, accessed 2 October 2013; taverns: Larkin, Reshaping of Everyday Life, p. 125.
‘was a home-advisor’: I am grateful to Dr Hanna Weibye for her help with the German, and with this idea.
‘not to want them’: courtesy books: Marjorie Morgan, Manners, Morals and Class in England, 1774–1858 (Basingstoke, Macmillan, 1994), p. 10; updated editions: Norbert Elias, The Civilizing Process: The History of Manners and State Formation and Civilization, trs., Edmund Jephcott (Oxford, Blackwell, 1994), pp. 61ff., 134–5.
‘they did in England’: ‘Worthless idea’: Joan DeJean, The Age of Comfort: When Paris Discovered Casual and the Modern Home Began (New York, Bloomsbury, 2009), p. 81; the indoor privy: Muizelaar and Phillips, Men and Women, p. 26; the close-stools: a sketch by Gesina Terborch, in the Rijksprentenkabinett, reproduced in Peter Thornton, Authentic Decor: The Domestic Interior, 1620–1929 (London, Seven Dials, 2000), p. 61.
‘aristocracy had done’: Pepys, Diary, 12 April 1665, vol. 6, p. 78; public display of Dutch beds: Thera Wijsenbeek-Olthuis, ‘The Social History of the Curtain’, Huub de Jonge, ed., Ons sort mensen: Levensstijlen in Nederland (Nijmegen, SUN, 1997), pp. 76–91; all translations from this book are by Gerard van Vuuren.
‘visitors were received’: Duc de Luynes: DeJean, The Age of Comfort, p. 167; Ham House: Crowley, Invention of Comfort, pp. 74–5; ruelle: Sarti, ‘The Material Conditions of Family Life’, Kertzer and Barbagli, History of the European Family, vol. 1, p. 122.
‘with him to Virginia’: Renaissance Italy: Sarti, Europe at Home, pp. 129, 132; Jefferson: DeJean, The Age of Comfort, p. 172.
‘receive her visitors’: watercolour: Duchesse de Montebello: Mario Praz, An Illustrated History of Interior Decoration from Pompeii to Art Nouveau (London, Thames and Hudson, 1964), p. 192, although he does not discuss the nature of the visit; Austrian interior: Charlotte Gere, Nineteenth Century Interiors: An Album of Watercolours, Joseph Focarino, ed. (London, Thames and Hudson, 1992), pp. 82–3.
‘buffer-zone of privacy’: the visiting Frenchman, Henri Meister, is found in Langford, Englishness Identified, p. 166; Horace Walpole, 28 October 1752, the electronic version of The Yale Edition of Horace Walpole’s Correspondence (New Haven, Yale University Press, 1937–83), vol. 20, pp. 339–40, http://images.library.yale.edu/hwcorrespondence/page.asp?vol=20&seq=364&type=b, accessed 11 March 2013.
‘Convenience of the Inhabitant’: Adams brothers: Meredith Martin, ‘The Ascendancy of the Interior in Eighteenth-Century French Architectural Theory’, Denise Amy Baxter and Meredith Martin, eds, Architectural Space in Eighteenth-Century Europe: Constructing Identities and Interiors (Farnham, Ashgate, 2010), p. 26; Norwich stonemason’s handbook: cited in John Archer, Architecture and Suburbia: From English Villa to American Dream House, 1690–2000 (Minneapolis, University of Minnesota Press, 2005), pp. 22–3.
‘until the nineteenth century’: Château de Chambord: Sherban Cantacuzino, European Domestic Architecture: Its Development from Early Times (London, Studio Vista, 1969), pp. 73–4.
‘the rooms’ inhabitants’: Martello: cited in Sarti, Europe at Home, p. 141.
‘structural upheaval’: Dutch privacy: Schama, Embarrassment of Riches, p. 389; Thornbury Castle: Maurice Howard, The Early Tudor Country House (London, George Philip, 1987), pp. 55, 57, 85–7.
‘from each other’: ‘a long entrance’: cited in Sarti, ‘The Material Conditions of Family Life’, Kertzer and Barbagli: History of the European Family, vol. 1, p. 12; ‘an intollerable servitude’: The Elements of Architecture, Collected by Henry Wotton, Knight (London, John Bull, 1624), pp. 72–3, cited in Lawrence Wright, Warm and Snug: The History of the Bed (London, Routledge & Kegan Paul, 1962), pp. 79–80; Sir Roger Pratt: Sarti, Europe at Home, p. 141.
‘their residents’ minds’: William Morris: Robin Evans, ‘Figures, Doors and Passages’, Architectural Design, 4, 1978, pp. 275.
‘none at all’: DeJean, The Age of Comfort, pp. 173–4.
‘to entertain visitors’: Viennese newspaper: cited in Donald J. Olsen, The City as a Work of Art, London, Paris, Vienna (New Haven, Yale University Press, 1986), pp. 115–9, 125–31; Edmond de Goncourt, La Maison d’un artiste, 1881, cited in Elizabeth Emery, Photojournalism and the Origins of the French Writer House Museum (1881–1914): Privacy, Publicity, and Personality (Farnham, Ashgate, 2012), p. 11; German resident: Hermann Muthesius, The English House, trs. Janet Seligman and Stewart Spencer (1st complete English edn, London, Frances Lincoln, 2007), vol. 2, pp. 27–8.
‘in the Chesapeake’: west African origins of shotgun houses: the suggestion is John Vlach’s, cited in James Deetz, In Small Things Forgotten: The Archaeology of Early American Life (Garden City, New York, Anchor Books, 1977), pp. 214–16. More precisely, Vlach thinks that the style took root in New Orleans, with its large free black community, and was reinforced with immigration from Haiti early in the nineteenth century, where houses on this plan were common. The New Orleans style used the Yoruba floorplan, French building techniques and the porch and front entrance style from the Arawak vernacular, to create an entirely creole house; porch: ibid., pp. 216, 228–9, 231; spread of verandas: ibid., pp. 228–9.
‘the main room’: Leiden: Loughman and Montias, Public and Private Spaces, p. 26; nomenclature: ibid., p. 26.
‘an impressive dresser’: yeomen farmers’ houses: Crowley, Invention of Comfort, p. 82; but and ben: Weatherill, Consumer Behaviour, pp. 10–11.
‘cheese-making equipment’: Leiden: Loughman and Montias, Public and Private Spaces, p. 26; Britain: Alcock, People at Home, p. 94.
‘had for centuries’: Germany: Robert Lee, ‘Family and “Modernisation”: The Peasant Family and Social Change in Nineteenth-Century Bavaria’, Richard J. Evans and W. R. Lee, eds, The German Family: Essays on the Social History of the Family in Nineteenth- and Twentieth-Century Germany (London, Croom Helm, 1981), pp. 85ff.; Sweden: Jonas Frykman and Orvar Löfgren, Culture Builders: A Historical Anthropology of Middle-Class Life, trs. Alan Crozier (New Brunswick, NJ, Rutgers University Press, 1987), p. 130.
‘replaced by mahogany’: 1825 magazine: [Catherine Hutton], in La Belle Assemblée, 1825; Margaret Ponsonby, Stories from Home: English Domestic Interiors, 1750–1850 (Aldershot, Ashgate, 2007), pp. 46–7, doubts that this is in reality the story of Hutton’s own family.
‘household manuals suggest’: Sir John Soane: these images are owned by Sir John Soane’s Museum, as Soane’s house now is; 1790s painting: this, by an unknown artist, is in the Museum of London.
‘the house’s best room’: Birmingham widow: David Hussey and Margaret Ponsonby, The Single Homemaker and Material Culture in the Long Eighteenth Century (Aldershot, Ashgate, 2012), p. 85; 90 per cent: Crowley, Invention of Comfort, p. 102; Barre Four Corners: David Jaffee, A New Nation of Goods: The Material Culture of Early America (Philadelphia, University of Pennsylvania Press, 2010), pp. 314–16.
‘twice a year’: Swedish cooper’s house: Frykman and Löfgren, Culture Builders, p. 135.
‘redecorated in 1697’: pre-1650 inventories: C. Willemijn Fock, ‘Semblance or Reality? The Domestic Interior in Seventeenth-Century Dutch Genre Painting’, Westermann, Art and Home, pp. 97ff.; post-1650 inventories, Wijsenbeek-Olthuis, ‘The Social History of the Curtain’, de Jonge, Ons sort mensen; ground floor: ibid.; Wijsenbeek-Olthuis is the historian referred to in the footnote; I owe the ‘good Calvinists have nothing to hide’ to Ravi Mirchandani, who adds that, while the cultural distrust of curtains may or may not come from Calvinism, many Dutch today believe that it does; single curtains: Westermann, Art and Home, pp. 98, 100.
‘had none’: UK statistics: Weatherill, Consumer Behaviour, pp. 6–8; Theophilus Eaton: Edgar de N. Mayhew, and Minor Myers, Jr, A Documentary History of American Interiors: From the Colonial Era to 1915 (New York, Charles Scribner’s Sons, 1980), pp. 7, 3–4; Delaware landowner: Richard L. Bushman, The Refinement of America: Persons, Houses, Cities (New York, Alfred A. Knopf, 1992), pp. 17.
‘earlier window-boards’: window-board: David Dewing, ed., Home and Garden, Paintings and Drawings of English, Middle-Class, Urban Domestic Spaces, 1675 to 1914 (London, Geffrye Museum, 2003), p. 40; York: Caroline Davidson, The World of Mary Ellen Best (London, Chatto & Windus, 1985), p. 27.
‘across the home countries’: Dr Johnson cited in Hentie Louw, ‘“The Advantage of a Clearer Light”: The Sash-window as a Harbinger of an Age of Progress and Enlightenment’, Hentie Louw and Ben Farmer, eds Companion to Contemporary Architectural Thought (London, Routledge, 1993), p. 304; ‘hard, sharp sunlight’ and ‘glaring mass of light’: Stefan Muthesius, The Poetic Home: Designing the 19th-Century Domestic Interior (London, Thames and Hudson, 2009), p. 194.
‘with indoor life’: ‘those who love shadow’: A. J. Downing, The Architecture of Country Houses … (New York, D. Appleton, 1852), p. 368; ‘No one could possibly’: Mrs [Lucy] Orrinsmith, The Drawing-room, its Decoration and Furniture (London, Art at Home Series, 1876), pp. 64–5.
‘household virtue’: ‘show order to the outside’: cited in S. Muthesius, Poetic Home, p. 175; German colonist: Nancy R. Reagin, Sweeping the Nation: Domesticity and National Identity in Germany, 1870–1945 (Cambridge, Cambridge University Press, 2007), p. 65.
‘new technologies’: Falke: cited in S. Muthesius, Poetic Home, p. 184; advertisement of Schäffer and Walcker, Berlin: ibid., p. 195.
‘we are indoors’: the gardening writer is John Worlidge: cited in Louw, ‘The Advantage of a Clearer Light’, Louw and Farmer, Companion to Contemporary Architectural Thought, p. 306; Falke, Wilde and Morris: cited in S. Muthesius, Poetic Home, p. 175–6; Gurlitt: cited in Wolfgang Schivelbusch, Disenchanted Night: The Industrialization of Light in the Nineteenth Century, trs. Angela Davies (Berkeley, University of California Press, 1995), p. 183.
‘an outdoor activity’: footnote: London housing: S. Muthesius, English Terraced House, pp. 1–3; Parisian benches: Marcus, Apartment Stories, pp. 24–8.
‘a period of time’: boarding house: Shirley Teresa Wajda, ‘“A Pretty Custom” Updated: From “Going to Housekeeping” to Bridal Showers in the United States, 1850s–1930s’, David Hussey and Margaret Ponsonby, eds, Buying for the Home: Shopping for the Domestic from the Seventeenth Century to the Present (Aldershot, Ashgate, 2008), pp. 140–414.
‘became more exposed’: Leeds: Burnett, Social History of Housing, pp. 62–3.
‘century and more’: Houghton Hall: Earl of Ilchester, ed., Lord Hervey and His Friends, 1726–38: Based on Letters from Holland House, Melbury, and Ickworth (London, John Murray, 1950), p. 71, cited by Stephen Taylor, ‘Walpole, Robert, first earl of Orford (1676–1745)’, Oxford Dictionary of National Biography, Oxford University Press, 2004; online edn, January 2008 [http://www.oxforddnb.com.ezproxy.londonlibrary.co.uk/view/article/28601, accessed 14 March 2013].
3. HOME AND THE WORLD
‘primary unit in society’: precedence to family: John Demos, Past, Present, and Personal: The Family and the Life Course in American History (New York, Oxford University Press, 1986), p. 29.
‘the public sphere’: Pitt’s speech: Anecdotes of the Life of the Rt Hon William Pitt … (1792), vol. 1, pp. 250–51, cited in George K. Behlmer, Friends of the Family: The English Home and its Guardians, 1850–1940 (Stanford, Stanford University Press, 1998), pp. 8–9, where he also traces the evolution of the phrase.
‘in a family setting’: Fabre d’Eglantine cited in Lynn Hunt, ‘The Unstable Boundaries of the French Revolution’, Philippe Ariès and Georges Duby, eds, A History of Private Life, trs. Arthur Goldhammer (Cambridge, MA, Belknap Press, 1987–91), vol. 4: From the Fires of Revolution to the Great War, Michelle Perrot, ed., p. 18; I am grateful to Hilary Mantel for adding nuance to this too-brief look at women and the Revolutionary clubs; her essay, ‘Rescued by Marat’, in the London Review of Books, 28 May 1992, pp. 15–16, gave me further enlightenment.
‘tainted by society’: ‘hereditary depravity’: John Calvin, The Institutes of Christian Religion, II.1.8; John Locke, Some Thoughts Concerning Education (London, A. & J. Churchill, 1693), p. 2.
‘agreeable and sweet’: Jean-Jacques Rousseau, Émile, or Treatise on Education, trs. William H. Payne (Amherst, NY, Prometheus, 2003), pp. 161–2, 263; Gisborne, Enquiry into the Duties of the Female Sex, cited in Robert Shoemaker, Gender in English Society, 1650–1850: The Emergence of Separate Spheres? (London, Longman, 1998), p. 32.
‘hotel lobbies’: 1854 journalist: cited in Katherine C. Grier, Culture and Comfort: Parlor Making and Middle-Class Identity, 1850–1930 (Washington, DC, Smithsonian, 1988), pp. 22–3.
‘even-more-private areas above’: American yards: Larkin, Reshaping of Everyday Life, p. 129–30; I-house: Henry Glassie, ‘Artifact and Culture, Architecture and Society’, S. J. Bronner, ed., American Material Culture and Folklife: A Prologue and Dialogue (Ann Arbor, University of Michigan Research Press, 1985), pp. 53–5.
‘the following day’: hours spent on chores: Sarti, ‘Material Conditions of Everyday Life’, Kertzer and Barbagli, History of the European Family, vol. 1, p. 19, although I have omitted the time she allocates for brewing and baking, as this was outsourced in much of Britain by the eighteenth century. I have also increased the hours she gives to laundry. Her four hours a week seems to me a substantial underestimate.
‘ironmongery, needles’: American rural women’s activities: Ruth Schwartz Cowan, A Social History of American Technology (New York, Oxford University Press, 1997), pp. 29–30.
‘whittled clothes-pegs’: footnote: Cowan, Social History of American Technology, pp. 20, 39; division of labour: Ruth Schwartz Cowan, More Work for Mother: The Ironies of Household Technology from the Open Hearth to the Microwave (New York, Basic, 1983), pp. 23–5; laundry chores: Jane C. Nylander, Our Own Snug Fireside: Images of the New England Home, 1760–1860 (New Haven, Yale University Press, 1994), pp. 131–7.
‘to both arenas’: John Pintard: Jeanne Boydston, Home and Work: Housework, Wages, and the Ideology of Labor in the Early Republic (New York, Oxford University Press, 1990), p. 43; Esther Burr: Boydston, Home and Work, pp. 15–16; accounts: Geoffrey Crossick and Heinz-Gerhard Haupt, The Petite Bourgeoisie in Europe, 1780–1914 (London, Routledge, 1995), p. 92.
‘from their husbands’: English vocabulary of roles: Boydston, Home and Work, pp. 8–9; German vocabulary: Gray, Productive Men, Reproductive Women, p. 105; women ‘supplementing’ income: Joel Mokyr, ‘Why “More Work for Mother”? Knowledge and Household Behavior, 1870–1945’, Journal of Economic History, March 2000, 6/1, p. 3; The Mothering Heart: Kathleen Anne McHugh, American Domesticity: From How-to Manual to Hollywood Melodrama (New York, Oxford University Press, 1999), pp. 93–6. The film can be viewed in full at http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=7B-SpMqlfrg, accessed 18 December 2013.
‘her sailor husband’: Salem housewife: Boydston, Home and Work, pp. 18–19, 51.
‘no longer work
’: ‘tranquil pastime’: [Edward Bulwer-Lytton], A Strange Story (London, Sampson Low, Son, & Co., 1862), vol. II, p. 73; New York Mercury: cited in Boydston, Home and Work, p. 10; 1881 census: McKeon, Secret History of Domesticity, p. 179.
‘as its housewife’: Henriette Davidis’s cookbook: Reagin, Sweeping the Nation, p. 23; Book of Household Management : Susan Zlotnick, ‘On the Publication of Isabella Beeton’s Book of Household Management, 1861’, Branch: Britain, Representation, and Nineteenth-Century History, ed. Dino Franco Felluga, extension of Romanticism and Victorianism on the Net, http://www.branchcollective.org/?ps_articles=susan-zlotnick-on-the-publication-of-isabella-beetons-book-of-household-management-1861, accessed 25 August 2013.
‘effort it took’: ‘not half as cheap’: McHugh, American Domesticity, p. 29; oilcloth: Reagin, Sweeping the Nation, pp. 36–42.
‘value of labour’: sock darning: Reagin, Sweeping the Nation, pp. 58, 60, 17; American manual advice: McHugh, American Domesticity, p. 29.
‘produced by one’: I am grateful to Laura Mason, who patiently instructed me in the varieties and survival rates of yeast, both by email and in her essay, ‘Barms and Leavens – Medieval to Modern’, in Ivan Day, ed., Over a Red Hot Stove: Essays in Early Cooking Technology (London, Prospect, 2009), pp. 125–48.
‘by the women’: stoves: Leonore Davidoff and Ruth Hawthorn, A Day in the Life of the Victorian Servant (London, Allen & Unwin, 1976), p. 78.
‘six and a half hours’: Susan Strasser, Never Done: A History of American Housework (New York, Pantheon, 1982), p. 41.
The Making of Home Page 29
