by Norman Stone
11Nachlass Berndt Tagebücher 6 and 7, especially 17th and 18th September, 4th October, 23rd December 1915 and 28th–29th February, 18th and 23rd April 1916. This diary, (Kriegsarchiv B/203) consists of 12 voluminous note-books, with a variety of interesting photographs and observations.
12Kundmann-Tagebuch 16th Setember 1915 and 23rd September 1915.
13Ibid. 27th May 1916; cf. Reichsarchiv: Der Weltkrieg X p. 451.
14AOK. Op. B. Fasz. 560 Nr. 19380 Tisza to Burián 30th December 1915 and Conrad to Tisza, 4th January 1916; A. v. Cramon: Unser österreichisch-ungarischer Bundesgenosse (Berlin 1921) pp. 118ff.
15AOK. Op. B. Fasz. 551, nos. 18076ff and 19181 of 11th December 1915, 19322 of 19th December; cf. Fasz. 560 Nr. 21317 of 6th February 1916. Conrad offered all German troops back to Falkenhayn; Falkenhayn, insultingly, refused the offer; and there was a complete breach at the turn of 1915–16.
16e.g. Kundmann-Tagebuch 2nd January, 3rd February, 4th and 21st May for quarrels over Verdun and the Trentino.
17Sbornik (Nastupleniye) Nos. 77ff. pp. 170–5.
18Klembovski: Strat. ocherk vol. 5 p. 32.
19Sbornik (Nastupleniye) No. 118ff. for the operation.
20Herberstein’s report to the Emperor’s Militärkanzlei: AOK. OP. B. Fasz. 450 Op. Geh. Nr.3 of 19th June 1916.
21Rostunov p. 134f.
22Kundmann-Tagebuch 10th June 1916.
23Knox to Buchanan 24th June 1916, in FO. 371.2748 (Russia, War 1916).
24A. Bernhard: ‘Okna’ and E. Wisshaupt: ’7. Armee’ in the Kriegsarchiv manuscript collection.
25Minute by Macdonough (DMI) on WO. 106.1019, Blair’s despatch No. 2 of 1st June 1916.
26Bazarevski’s is the most thorough account of this: cf. M. Pitreich : Okna (1931) and the Nachlass of Pflanzer-Baltin, especially his Tagebuch, Mappe 13.
27Berhard pp. 11–16 and Wisshaupt p. 28.
28Sbornik (Nastupleniye) No. 553, p. 520.
29AOK. Op. B. Fasz. 460 Nos (Geh.) 14–15 of 25th and 29th June; the story is well-told in H. Meier-Welcker: Seeckt (Frankfurt 1967) cf. K. H. Janssen: Kanzler.
30Kundmann-Tagebuch 13th June.
31K. Korvin: ‘Kostyukhnovka’ in Voyennoye delo 11–12 (1919) p. 431f. and cf. Neilson’s despatch of 24th October 1916 (WO. 106.1120).
32Klembovski pp. 48, 50–1; Sbornik (Nastupleniye) No. 322 p. 345 cf. No. 202 of p. 260 (Brusilov to Alexeyev, 18th and 10th June).
33Blair’s despatch No. 3 of 8th July 1916 (WO. 106.1020).
34Reichsarchiv: Der Weltkrieg vol. 10 pp. 451f, 473–4. By 19th June, 8½ German divisions had arrived, with two to come. Almost all were from the west or centre; Ludendorff did little, as Hoffmann recorded. (Aufzeichnungen ed. Nowak, Berlin 1929, vol. 2 p.122).
35Kundmann-Tagebuch 8th June, cf. AOK. Op. B. Fasz. 450 Op. Geh. 2 of 19th June, and passim, in these documents, for the great confusion with reserves.
36Ibid. Geh. Nr. 3 (Tersztyánszky’s message by Hughes apparatus of 19th June) and cf. Nos. 9 (30th June) and 19 (1st July).
37Kundmann-Tagebuch of 7th July 1916. He thought the way to Budapest was open
38Kersnovski vol. 4 p. 700ff. and Zayonchkovski: Strat. ocherk. vol. 6 p. 60ff.
39Brusilov: Notebook pp. 259f.
40Blair’s despatches nos. 6 and 9 of 8, 22nd August (WO. 106.1023,6); an exchange in Voyennoye delo 1919 Nos. 4, 9–10, 15–16 concerns ‘Gvardiya na Stokhode’ and supplies interesting details on the Kowel battles. Zay onchkovski: Strat. ocherk vol. 6 p. 44f. gives details of strength: III Army 86 batteries to 16, the Guard Army 96 to 28, each on less than ten kilometres of front: ‘the battering-ram’.
CHAPTER TWELVE
1V. N. Vinogradov: Ruminiya vgody pervoy mirovoy voyni (Moscow 1969) is a convenient modern account and has a good bibliography. Older works: Kiritzesco: La Roumanie dans la Guerre mondiale (1935), Pétion: Le drame roumain (Paris 1928), Dabija: România dîn războiul mondial (4 v. Bucharest 1934–6) and the official two-volume work (1934–6) of the same title; some documents in Lemke pp. 839ff.
2Langlois: 8e rapport (8th March 1917) pp. 3–15 and throughout discusses the Romanian army.
3Vinogradov p. 229.
4Oest. Ung. 1. K. V p. 622 and Reichsarchiv: Weltkrieg X, p. 540.
5Hoffmann: Aufzeichnungen I, p. 165.
6F. Fischer: Weltmacht (3. ed. Düsseldorf 1964) and particularly K. H. Janssen: Der Kanzler und der General (Göttingen 1967) for these issues.
7Reichsarchiv: Weltkrieg X p. 523f. and Oest. Ung. 1. K. V p. 120f.
8Kersnovski vol. IV p. 800f. and A. M. Zayonchkovski: Strategicheski ocherk voyni (1923) vol. VI p. 57f. and V. Klembovski: Strat. ocherk voyni (1922) vol. V p.94f.
9Hoffmann 1 p. 201.
10Kersnovski p. 800ff. and vols. V and VI of strat. och. voyni are the most convenient (but always inadequate) Russian accounts. Reichsarchiv X p. 540f. and Oest. Ung. 1. K. V 117–623 cover these battles from the other side.
11Kersnovski p. 844.
12v. his letter to Sazonov, 5th March 1916, in Sbornik (Nashipleniye) No. 15 p. 16f.
13On the military side: Zayonchkovski, Strat. och. voyni p. 57f. and F. I. Vasiliev: Rumynski front (vol. VII of strat. och. voyni, 1922) are the best Russian descriptions; cf. E. v. Falkenhayn: Der Siegeszug der 9. Armee (1924) and the Romanian works in Note 1.
14v. his report to Alexeyev in Krasny Arkhiv 58 (1934). The Dobrogea army had 124 battalions to 79 and 89 batteries to 62.
15v. Flot v mirovoy voyne (2 v. Moscow 1964) ed. Pavlovitch, vol. 2 p. 64.
16A. Bazarevski in Les Alliés contre la Russie ed. Shliapnikoff p. 210ff. for Russian diversions of strength at the Allies’ request.
17Chaadaeva p. 19 and Pétion p.139.
18v. Col. Constantini: ‘La mission Berthelot’ in Revue historique de l’armée 1967/4 and V. Fedorov: ‘Russkaya voyennaya missiya v Rumynii’ in Voprosy istorii 1947/8.
19V. Stupin: ‘Mitavskaya operatsiya’ in voyenno-ist. sbornik II (1919) pp. 31–93; Pukhov: Mondzundskaya operatsiya (Moscow 1957); Flot v mirovoy voyne; Reichsarchiv: XI and Kersnovski v. IV p. 84of.
CHAPTER THIRTEEN
1Rabochi klass i rabocheye dvizheniye v Rosii v 1917 g. (‘Materialy’, Moscow 1962) is a useful summary of this growth: v. especially A.S. Gaponenko’s contribution (pp. 14–48): ‘Rossiyski proletariat, ego chislennost…’; A. G. Rashin: Formirovaniye rabochego klassa (Moscow 1958); K.P. Leyberov and O.I. Shkataran: ‘K voprosu o sostave petrogradskikh promyshlennikh rabochikh v 1917 g.’ in Voprosi istorii 1967/1; K.P.Leyberov: ‘O revolyutsionnikh vystupleniyakh petrogradskogo proletariata’ in Voprosi istorii 1964/2 (with a good bibliography). The most useful survey of the interaction of economics and politics in 1917 is still P.B. Volobuyev: Ekonomicheskaya politika Vremennogo pravitelstva (Moscow 1962).
2A. M. Anfimov: Rossiyskaya derevnya v gody pervoy mirovoy voyni (Moscow, 1962) pp. 250, table 75 and 254 table 77 (for 44 provinces); cf. A. I. Khrashcheva: ‘Krestyanstvo v voyne i revolyutsii’ in Vestnik Statistiki 1920/Sept.—Dec. Nos. 9–12 pp. 4–47; esp. p. 29 (Tula Tver and Penza).
3Sidorov: ‘Zhelezno-dorozhny transport’ in Istoricheskiye Zapiski 26 (1948) pp. 3–64, and the revised version in Ek. Pol. pp. 565ff. give good figures for the railway-problem generally.
4 Sidorov: Fin. pol. p. 247 and passim. Claus, op. cit. also reviews financial matters ably, and the work of M. N. Apostol: Russian Public Finance (New Haven 1932) is a convenient but often misleading account in English. The contemporary reports of G. D. Dementiev and P. L. Bark in Krasny Arkhiv 17 (1926) and 25 (1929) are useful mainly for the light they shed on contemporaries’ failure to understand the heart of the problem, and much the same is true of P. B. Struve: Price Control in Russia during the War (New Haven 1932).
5Sidorov: Fin. Pol. p. 257.
6P. B Volobuyev op. cit. p. 338ff.
7Ibid. p. 295ff. and cf. Sidorov; Fin. Pol. for similar discussion
8J Stamp: Taxation during the War (London 1932) p. 124.
9Ib
id.p. 245.
10Volobuyev p. 340ff.
11R. Kahil: Inflation and Economic Development in Brazil 1946–1963 (Oxford 1973), conclusion.
12Teodor Shanin: The Awkward Class (Oxford 1972) p. 10.
13Anfimov: op. cit. p. 63; cf. A. P. Minarik: ‘Sistema pomeshchichego khozyaystva v Rakityanskom imenii Yusupovykh’ in Materialy po istorii selskogo khozyaystva i krestyanstva SSSR Sb. 5 (Moscow 1962); for a rather traditional view of the agrarian revolt: Marc Ferro: ‘La Révolution au village’ in Cahiers du Monde russe et soviétique14/1–2 (1974) pp. 33–53; army purchases: Anfimov p. 146f.
14Sidorov: Ek. Pol. p. 457 cf. Anfimov pp. 117f., 133.
15Anfimov p. 111.
16Ibid. p. 310. Kuban and Stavropol furnished 15 million poods in 1916, as against 103 million in 1915. Samara, Ufa and Orenburg together gave 22 million in 1916, as against 232 million in 1915.
17Anfimov p. 89 and table p. 142.
18T. Shanin; op. cit. passim.
19The census figures appear in English in Antsiferov: Russian Agriculture during the War (New Haven 1932), passim. They are criticized by V. S. Nemchinov: Izbranniye proizvedeniya (6 vols. Moscow 1967ff.) vol. 2 (1967) pp. 321ff. (sel.khoz. statistika…’) and vol. 4 (‘Razmeshcheniye proizvoditelnikh sil’) cf. Anfimov p. 119 on increases in sown land.
20Anfimov: table, p. 290 and cf. Sidorov: Ek. Pol. p. 573 for meat, butter.
21Quoted in Volobuyev p. 385–6.
22Volobuyev, table p. 464, cf. Sidorov: Ek. Pol. p. 488; effects generally, pp. 410–23 and particularly A. S. Gaponenko: op. cit. and ‘Polozheniye rabochego klassa’ in Istoricheskiye Zapiski 83 (1969) pp. 3–22.
23Volobuyev pp. 440ff. and cf. Struve: op. cit. for contemporary view of a liberal economist’s; Volobuyev, Sidorov Ek. Pol. and Anfimov, passim, for figures.
24The railway-problem is discussed by Sidorov: Ek. Pol. pp. 545ff, which replaces his earlier article (1948). There are important figures in Strumilin: op. cit. vol. 3 pp. 398f. and 415. Claus op. cit. p. 114 ff. is the only reliable account of the problem in a western language; Volobuyev p. 210 gives a figure of 15,500 for working locomotives in 1917, which is certainly more accurate than the figure often found of less than 10,000.
25The army has been subject of considerable literature, of which there is an excellent bibliography in Wettig: Die Rolle der russischen Armee. An important recent review of the subject is Marc Ferro: ‘Le soldat russe’ in Annales ESC 1971/1 pp. 14–39. The discovery that the Russian army did not really dissolve at all dates from: Gavrilov and Kutuzov: ‘Perepis russkoy armii’ in Istoriya SSSR 1964/2 pp. 87–91.
NOTE ON SOURCES
As general introductions to this subject, the most useful works are: Marc Ferro: The Great War (London 1973) and A. J. P. Taylor: The First World War (Paperback ed. London 1966). The best short Russian account is D. Verzhkhovski and V. Lyakhov : Pervaya mirovaya voyna (Moscow 1964). The problem of 1917, altogether, is discussed in all aspects by Marc Ferro: The Russian Revolution of February 1917 (London 1972) The French and English editions, but not the American, contain a comprehensive-bibliography.
For the military side, the most convenient bibliographical work can be found, for Soviet sources, in Verzhkhovski and Lyakhov: ‘Sovietskaya istoricheskaya literatura o pervoy mirovoy voyne’ in Voyenno-istoricheski zhurnal 1964/12 pp. 86–92, which may still be supplemented by G. Khmelevski: Mirovaya imperial. voyna… Sistematicheski ukazatel knizhnoy i stateynoy voyenno-istoricheskoy literaturi (Moscow 1936) of which there is a photographic reissue by ‘Oriental Research Partners, Cambridge’. A. Gering: Materialy k bibliografii russkoy voyennoy pechati za rubezhom (Paris, Voycnnaya byl publications, 1968) is an essential addition for the émigré side. In western languages, M. Gunzenhauser: Die Bibliographien zur Geschichte des Ersten Weltkrieges (Frankfurt a. M. 1964) is extremely thorough, but has weak sections on the eastern European side. W. Lerat and A. Dumesnil (ed.): Catalogue méthodique du fonds russe de la Bibliothèque de la Guerre (Paris 1932) recites the works to be found in what is still the best collection for this subject in Europe, now re-named Bibliothèque de documentation internationale contemporaine. M. Lyons: The Russian Imperial Army (Stanford 1968) lists some regimental histories.
On the economic side, there is a useful bibliography of recent work in René Girault: Emprunts russes et investissements français en Russie (Paris 1973). The various works of A. L. Sidorov have proved essential to me throughout this book; a convenient list of them may be found in the volume of essays: Ekonomicheskoye Polozheniye Rossii v gody pervoy mirovoy voyni (ed. K. N. Tarnovski and others, Moscow 1973).
I have also used a number of archival sources. The Hoover Institution in Stanford, California, has some extremely valuable ones: for Russia, the minutes of the Council of Ministers (Vysochayshe utverzhdenniye osobiye zhurnali sovieta ministrov i osobikh soveshchaniy), the Osnovniye direktivi i direktivniye ukazaniya Verkhovnogo Glavnokomanduyushchego—Stavka orders and conference minutes for 1914–15- and the Kratky otchet o deyatelnosti Voyennogo Ministerstva za 1916 god. The ‘Golovin Archive’ also contains numerous items of lesser value, but none the less of interest. The German archives have survived only very limitedly: v. Militärgeschichtliche Mitteilungen 1968/2 pp. 135–44 and R. Studanski: ‘Die Bestände des deutschen Militärarchivs’ in: Zeitschrift für Militärgeschichte Jg. 4 1965, which replace earlier articles. The finest collection of archives of the war still existing in Europe is probably the Vienna Kriegsarchiv, of which I have made extensive use, as indicated in the footnotes. British archives, in the Public Record Office, both Foreign Office and War Office, may be used with profit. The Index volume 178A shows the various military attachés’ reports: those of Blair (985–1037) and Neilson (1119–1126) are the most valuable. Knox’s were almost all printed in his With the Russian Army. The French observers were more reliable, on the whole, and the Ministére de la Guerre: Archives historiques (Château de Vincennes) ‘Campagne contre l’Allemagne 1914–1918’ Cartons 77–81 contain their reports. The essential ones here—and a source worth publishing–are the eight Rapports du Colonel Langlois, in Carton 79; the military attachés’ reports in Carton 77 also contain important material.
Index
Aerial Photography, 238
Agriculture, 286, 292–4
Albania, 142, 221, 222, 243
Alexandrovsk, 158
Alexeyev, 21, 31, 34, 35, 51, 53, 82, 84, 85, 87, 88, 94, 95, 96, 101, 107, 111, 119, 120, 130, 136 ff., 142, 149 n., 169, 171, 174, 175, 185–7 passim, 179, 180, 181, 184–7 passim, 189, 191–2, 212, 221 ff., 227, 230, 232–4, 238, 239, 246, 257, 270, 271, 273, 274, 277, 279
Allenstein, 64, 65, 66
Allies, 116
Allison, 153
Alsace, 44
Altschiller, 26
Anarchists, 283
Anatra factory, 210
Andersen, 176
Andrássy, 269
Andrey Vladimirovitch, Grand Duke, 192
Andronikov, Prince, 26–7, 197
Angerapp lines, 54, 59, 62, 67, 68, 97, 111
Anglo-Russian Committee (trade), 155
Antsiferov, 297
Antwerp, 175, 181
Arab troops, 278
Archangel, 157–8
Ardennes, 50
Arges river, 280
‘ Army Group Archduke Karl’, 255
Army wives, 53, 58, 113
Arsiero-Asiago, 246
Artamonov, 63, 226
Artillery, 23–4, 38, 93–4, 131–2, 146 ff., 210, 239, 247, 251–2
Artillery Committee, 23
Artillery Department, 28, 29, 31, 32, 144, 149, 150, 155, 161, 163, 211
Artois, 133
Asiago, 258
Auffenberg, 86, 87, 90.
August 1914, 44–5
Augustow, 118
Austerlitz, 58
Austria, 27, 33, 34, 42–3, 44, 51, 53, 70–6, 219, 253, 268;
aircraft, 80;
gunboats, 277;
pilots, 24
1
Austro-German army, 23, 180, 239;
quarrels, 243, 262
Austro-Hungarian armies, 38, 44, 45, 53, 55, 71, 82, 84, 88–91, 96–9, 120–1, 122, 123, 141–2, 190–1, 246;
IV, 86–90, 126, 128, 138, 178, 240, 241, 259, 262, 271, 272;
VII, 140, 252;
VIII, 247, defeated, 254;
cavalry, 80, 86;
conscription, 214;
guns, 223;
losses, 190, 251;
mobilisation, 75–80;
munition, 149 n.;
railways, 73–8
Averescu, 277
Ayvaz factory, 161
‘Bag-men’, 297
Bakaritsa, 157
Baku, 203
Balanin, 28
Balkans, 35, 81, 88, 89, 109, 111, 120, 130, 140, 243, 282
Baltic, 18, 21, 29, 33, 52, 59, 171, 185, 281
Baluyev, 228, 229, 230
Banking, 207, 284
Baranovitchi, 52, 53, 135, 182, 184, 189, 257, 260, 267
Bark, Peter, 195, 290
Barsukov, 28
Baykov, 206
Bayov, 27
Bayrashev, 26
Belgian army, 93
Belgium, 38, 40, 44, 45
Below, 64, 65, 116
Benderi, 279
Benckendorff, 156
Berchtold, Graf, 242
Berdichev, 233, 234
Beresteczko, 85
Berlin, 37, 54, 269
Berndt, 240, 241, 242
Berthelot, 280
Beseler, 107, 181, 185
Beskidenkorps, 121, 122
Bessarabia, 273
Bessarabian offensive, 82, 135, 223, 224, 226, 232
Bethmann Hollweg, Theobald von, 42, 43, 76, 185, 267, 268, 269
Bezobrazov, 28, 225, 226, 261, 263
Biala river, 91, 100
Bialowieś woods, 182
Bialystok, 33, 48, 63, 182
Biecz, 137
‘Birzhevaya’ wharf, 157
Birth-rate, 218–19
‘Black Hundreds’, 297 n.
Black Market, 297
Black Sea, 29, 221, 225, 274, 27
Black-Yellow offensive, 191
Blagoveshchenski, 64, 65
Bloch, 145
Bobr river, 186
Bobrinsky, 192
Bobyr, 182
