by Norman Stone
Chapter 6: J. W. Wheeler Bennett, Brest-Litovsk: The Forgotten Peace (London, 1938) is the book, but W. Baumgart, Deutsche Ostpolitik 1918 (Vienna, 1966) has important details regarding the Caucasus, Ukraine, etc. The Ludendorff offensives are discussed in Martin Middlebrook, The Kaiser’s Battle (London, 1978) and Tim Travers, How the War was Won (London, 1992); for the decline of the German war economy, see G. D. Feldman, Army, Industry and Labour in Germany 1914–1918 (Princeton, 1966). Klaus Schwabe, Woodrow Wilson, Revolutionary Germany and Peacemaking 1918–1919 (London, 1985) ends the war. Bernard Michel, La Chute de l’Empire austro-hongrois (Paris, 1991) recounts the disintegration of Central Europe in absorbing detail.
Chapter 7: see Stanford J. Shaw, From Empire to Republic: The Turkish War of National Liberation 1918–1923 (5 vols., Türk Tarih Kurumu, 2000) and Michael Llewellyn-Smith, Ionian Vision (Michigan, 1999) which is extraordinarily fair-minded as between Greeks and Turks. Margaret MacMillan, Paris 1919 (New York, 2003) is a splendid survey of peacemaking, and Robert Skidelsky, J. M. Keynes: Hopes Betrayed (London, 1998) is a brilliant book on the intellectual and moral atmosphere of that generation. For the Middle East, David Fromkin, A Peace to End All Peace (London, 2005) has been deservedly a bestseller, but there are two older books that make for thought:Walter Laqueur, A History of Zionism (New York, 2003) and Elie Kedourie, England and the Middle East: The Destruction of the Ottoman Empire. For the upshot in Germany, Samuel Halperin, Germany Tried Democracy (rep. New York, 1965) is a journalist’s very well informed account, though it should be read together with H. A. Winkler, Weimar 1918–1933 (Munich, 1999). On the catastrophe of the interwar period, the first hundred or so pages of A. J. P. Taylor’s Origins of the Second World War (London, 1963, with ‘second thoughts’) sum up the enormous gap between aspiration and reality. The same conclusion comes, very entertainingly, through Malcolm Muggeridge, The Thirties (written in 1939).
Finally some works of fiction. The generation of 1914 was highly literate, and wrote more and better than that of 1939. The novels that I should put at the top of my own list are Louis-Ferdinand Céline, Voyage au bout de la nuit, C. S. Forrester, The General, Sebastian Faulks, Birdsong and, most recent, Louis de Bernieres, Birds Without Wings. The compliment in all cases is that I read them without stopping.
Index
air war, 104, 117, 134, 136, 140–41
aircraft, 12, 104
Aisne, battle (1918), 138–9; stalemate (1914), 38
Alexeev, Genl Mikhail, 70
Alsace-Lorraine, British war aim, 131
Amiens (1918), 135, 140
anti-semitism, 156
Antwerp, 34, 36
Aosta, Emanuel, Duke of, 123
Ardennes, French defeat (1914), 35
Armenian massacres (1915), 58–9
armistice negotiations (Western Allies), 145–8; see also Brest-Litovsk
arms race, 14–15
Arras, battles (1917 & 1918), 106, 142
artillery, 31–2; air support, 117, 134, 136; British, 83–5, 86–7, 106, 114–15, 117, 134, 143; communications, 84, 104–5; counter-battery fire, 139, 143; creeping barrage, 86, 98, 105, 115, 116; French, 33, 139; German, 33–4, 78, 118, 121, 134, 136, 138
atomic bomb, 25, 54
Australia, Gallipoli campaign (1915–16), 59; Western front (1918), 143
Austria, 8; alliance with Germany, 18, 19, 21, 41–2, 47–8; arms race, 15; Balkans and, 9, 11, 14; casualties and losses, 48, 64–5, 89, 119; end of empire, 144–5; financial situation, 30; treaty of Brest-Litovsk, 5–6; unreliability, 18; war with Italy, 66, 80, 118–24; war with Russia, 21, 22, 41–4, 65, 68, 88–91; war with Serbia, 21, 22, 41–4
Badoglio, Genl Pietro, 120–22
Balkan Wars, 12–13, 14, 18
Balkans, 9, 11, 71–2, 91, 144, 154
Baltic states, 6, 71, 118, 132
Bapaume, battle (1918), 142
Belgium, casualties and losses, 45; invaded by Germany, 22–3, 34, 35–6; key to peace negotiations,
Belgium –cont. 100–101, 131; territorial ambitions, 146
BelleauWood, battle (1918), 138
Below, Genl Otto von, 120–24, 132–3
Benedict XV, Pope, 119–20
Berendt, Brig Richard von, 121
Beseler, Genl Hans von, 71
Bethmann Hollweg, Theobald von, 16, 20, 21, 24, 100–101
Bezobrazov, Genl Vladimir M., 80, 90
Bismarck, Otto, Prince von, 7, 8–9, 12, 19, 60
Blitzkrieg (Hutier tactics), 117, 118, 134; employed by British (1918), 140–41; employed by French (1918), 139–40; see also Hutier, Genl Oskar von
blockade, of Germany, 53–7, 60, 97, 98–9, 103
Boghos Nubar, 59
Böhn, Genl Hans von, 138–9
Bolsheviks, 6, 30, 108–112
Breslau (German battleship), 48, 49
Brest-Litovsk, armistice treaty (1918), 5–6, 129–30, 136; see also armistice negotiations (Western Allies)
British army, Arras (1917& 1918), 106, 142; British Expeditionary Force, 34, 35, 36, 37–8, 62–3; casualties and losses, 45, 59, 85, 87, 112, 133, 135, 137; counter-attack (1918), 140–41, 142–3; Gallipoli campaign (1915), 59; and German March offensive (1918), 132–6; new armies, 83; Somme (1916), 83–7; trenches, 46; Ypres/Passchendaele, 45, 61, 105, 112, 113–17, 136–7; see also Great Britain
Brooke, Rupert, 57, 58
Brusilov, Genl A. A., 87–90
Brusilov offensive (1916), 87–91
Bucharest, 91
Bulgaria, 71–2, 144
Bülow, Field Marshal Karl von, 36, 37, 38
Byng, Genl Sir Julian, 134
Cadorna, Genl Luigi, 119–20, 121, 123, 136
Cambrai, battle (1917), 117, 132
Canadian army, 106, 143
Capello, Genl Luigi, 121, 123
Caporetto, battle (1917), 7, 120–24, 132, 135–6, 136
Carpathian campaigns, 43–4, 65–9; see also Przemysl
Caucasus, fighting between Turkey and Russia, 49, 57; German oil ambitions, 130
Cavour, Count Camillo, 12
Ceáline, Louis-Ferdinand, 29
Central Powers see Austria; Germany
Champagne (1915), 63–4
Chantilly conference (1915), 77, 80, 83
ChàteauThierry, battle (1918), 138
Chemin des Dames, French attacks (1917& 1918), 107, 108, 140
China, 13, 130
Churchill, Sir Winston S., 7, 23, 48, 54, 99; Dardanelles and Gallipoli, 57–9
Clemenceau, Georges, 108, 153
Conrad von Hötzendorf, Genl Franz Graf, 41–4, 47–8, 60–61, 64, 67, 80
Constantinople, offered to Russia, 57, 61
Currie, Genl Sir Arthur, 140
Czernin, Count Ottokar, 18
Debeney, Genl Marie-Eugene, 139–40
Diaz, Maj Genl Armando, 124
Douaumont fort (Verdun), 78, 79
Doughty-Wylie, Lt Col Hotham, 72
Drocourt-Quéant, battle (1918), 142
Duchêne, Genl Denis Auguste, 138
East Prussia, 36, 38–40
Ebert, Friedrich, 25
Eichhorn, Genl Hermann von, 130
Einstein, Alfred, 25
Eisenhower, Genl Dwight D., 11
Entente Cordiale, 11
Enver Pasha, 14, 48–9, 58–9, 144
Erzberger, Matthias, 146
Falkenhayn, Genl Erich von, Eastern front, 44, 65, 66–7, 69, 71; relations with Conrad, 80; removed to command 9th Army, 91; replaces Moltke, 44, 48, 60–62; Verdun offensive, 77–80
Falkland Islands, battle (1914), 54
Finland, 6, 130
Foch, Marshal Ferdinand, 37, 136, 140, 148
forts, futility of, 31–2
France, alliance with Russia, 9; arms race, 15; defence of Verdun (1916), 77–80; financial situation, 30; German ultimatum (1914), 22; mobilization in 1870, 22; rivalry with Germany, 8; treaties with Britain and Russia, 11; see also French army
Fra
nco-Prussian War (1870), 22
Franz Ferdinand, Archduke, 18–19, 21
Franz Joseph, Emperor of Austria, 91–2, 97
French, Genl Sir John, 35, 37, 63
French army, casualties and losses, 35, 79, 87, 137; Champagne (1915), 63–4; Chemin des Dames (1917& 1918), 107, 108, 140; counter-attack (1918), 139–40; methods and uniforms, 34; mutinies (1917), 107; response to German attacks (1914), 33–8; Somme advances (1916), 85; Verdun, 77–80; see also France
Friedrich, Archduke, 47
Gallipoli campaign (1915–16), 58–9
Gallwitz, Genl Max von, 70
Georgia, 130
German army, attack in the west (1914), 33–8; Cambrai counterattack, 117; Caporetto (1917), 120–24, 132; Carpathian campaigns (1915), 65–9;
German army –cont. casualties and losses, 39, 45, 65, 79–80, 87, 137, 140, 141, 143; communications problems, 36; defences at Passchendaele (1917), 114; in East Prussia, 38–40; Eastern front advances (1915), 68–71; Friedenssturm offensive, 139; influence on policy, 17, 19–20, 21–2; March offensive (1918), 7, 132–9; Masurian Lakes Winter battle (1915), 65; operation ‘Alberich’ (1917), 106; retreat (1918), 140–44; Somme (1916), 83, 84–6; ‘storm troops’, 117, 118, 134; training and equipment, 33–4; Verdun offensive, 77–80
German navy, 9, 10–11; battleships sent to Turkey, 48–9; Jutland (1916), 82–3; submarine warfare, 97, 98–9, 101–2, 130; suicide plan and mutinies (1918), 147
Germany, alliance with Austria, 18, 19, 21, 41–2, 47–8; alliance with Russia, 9; armistice negotiations (1918), 145–8; armistice with Russia (Brest-Litovsk), 5–6, 129–30; chaos and insurrection, 147–8; financial situation, 30; Hindenburg Programme, 97, 130–31, 138; Hitler chancellorship, 156–7; inflation (1920s), 156; invasion of Austria (1918), 145; naval build-up, 9, 10–11; peace negotiations (1917), 100–101; prewar confidence, 6–10; props up Austria at Caporetto (1917), 120–24, 132; response to British blockade, 54–7, 60, 97, 98–9; Schlieffen Plan, 17, 22, 23, 32–3, 103; ‘stab in the back’ fantasy, 156; submarine warfare, 97, 98–102; Turkey and, 13–14, 48–9; war declarations, 20–23; war-economic conditions (1918), 130–31, 143; Weimar Republic, 154–6
Goeben (German battleship), 48, 49
Gorlice (1915), 136
Gough, Genl Sir Hubert, 115–16, 132–3, 134–5
Great Britain, allied financier, 77, 104; Belgium and, 22–3; blockade of Germany, 53–7, 103; conscription introduced, 56–7; declares war on Germany, 23; defensive alliances, 10, 11, 15; effect of increased exports, 56–7; financial situation, 30, 104; foreign policy since 1850, 131; German envy, 9–10; losses to U-Boats, 101–2; Middle East territories, 153–4; munitions industry, 84; signs of war-weariness, 92; war with Turkey, 57–60; see also British army; Royal Navy
Grey, Sir Edward, 29–30
Guise, 36
Haig, Field Marshal Sir Douglas, 63, 83–7, 104, 106–7, 112–13, 115–17, 133, 136–7, 140, 143
Hall, Adm Sir William, 103
Hamilton, Genl Sir Ian, 58
Hankey, Maurice, 54
Harrach, Count Franz von, 19
Helfand, Alexander (Parvus), 124
Helfferich, Karl, 100
Hemingway, Ernest, 123, 125
Hindenburg, Genl Paul von, 39–40, 65, 89, 141–2, 147, 155
Hintze, Adm Paul von, 131
Hitler, Adolf, 12, 24, 60, 134, 147, 155–6
Holland, naval blockade and, 55
Holtzendorff, Adm Henning von, 100, 101–2, 104
horses, indispensability of and drawbacks, 32, 36, 68
Hötzendorf see Conrad von Hötzendorf
Hoyos, Count, 20
Hungary, 18, 144
Hutier, Genl Oskar von, 132; see also Blitzkrieg (Hutier tactics)
India, German threat (1918), 130
industry, war industry, 12, 16–17, 83
infantry tactics, advance inline, 84; assault battalions (storm troops/stosstrupps), 117, 118, 134; fire and movement, 105
influenza epidemic (1919), 153
Iraq see Mesopotamia Isonzo battles, 112, 119
Italy, 7; appeals for Russian help, 87; Caporetto (1917), 120–24; casualties and losses, 112, 119, 123–4; colonial ambitions, 12; Isonzo battles, 112, 119; war with Austria, 66, 80, 118–24, 145
Ivanov, Genl Nikolai, 68, 69
Jellicoe, Adm Sir John, 82
Joffre, Marshall Joseph, 34–5, 37, 98
Joseph Ferdinand, Archduke, 88
Jutland, battle (1916), 82–3
Karl I, Emperor of Austria, 100
Kemal Atatürk, 49, 59
Khan of Nakhichevan, 32
Kisch, Egon Erwin (journalist), 49
Kitchener, Field Marshal Lord, 37
Kluck, Genl Alexander von, 35–7, 38
Königsberg, 39, 40
Kovno, 70, 71
Kress von Kressenstein, Genl Friedrich, 49
Kriemhild Line, 143, 1942
Kühlmann, Richard von, 131
Kuropatkin, Genl Alexei, 80
Kut el Amara, British surrender (1916), 60
Lake Narotch, battle (1916), 80–81
Lammasch, Heinrich, 144
Lanrezac, Genl Charles, 34, 35
Lawrence, T. E., 153–4
Le Cateau, battle (1914), 36
League of Nations, 154
Leinster, RMS, 146
Lemberg (Lvov), 44, 69
Lemke, Mikhail, 80
Lemnos, 58
Lenin, Vladimir I., 24, 111–12, 124–5, 129, 130
Leopold of Bavaria, Prince, 5
Levetzow, Captain Magnus von (German navy), 147
Libya, 12
Liège, 32, 34, 39
Liman von Sanders, Genl Otto, 13, 14
Lithuania, 6
Lloyd George, David, 23, 97, 107, 112, 131, 148, 153, 156
London, Declaration of (1909), 55
Loos, battle (1915), 63
Lossberg, Col von, 114, 140
Lossow, Genl Otto von, 130
Ludendorff, Genl Erich, Austro-Hungarian army and, 89; defeat, 145–7; East Prussia, Poland and Baltic, 39–40, 65, 71; March offensive and retreat (1918), 133–44; master in Germany, 101, 130, 131; recognises Western front conditions, 97; relations with Conrad, 47–8; ‘stab in the back’ fantasy, 156
Lusitania, RMS, 99
Lvov (Lemberg), 44, 69
Lys, battle (1918), 137
Mackensen, Field Marshal August von, 67, 70, 71–2
malaria, 58, 91
Mametz, battle (1916), 85
Mangin, Genl Charles, 139–49
Marne, battle (1914), 36, 37–8; battle (1918), 139–40
Marwitz, Genl Georg von der, 66, 90, 132
Masurian lakes, 41; Winter Battle (1915), 65
Maubeuge, 36
Max of Baden, Prince, 145, 147–8
Mesopotamia, 48; British expeditionary force, 58, 59–60
Messines Ridge, battle (1917), 112–13
Metz, 34
Mexico, Zimmermann telegram, 103
Moldavia, 91
Moltke, Genl Helmuth von, 36, 37, 38, 39, 41, 44
Monash, Genl Sir John, 140
Mons (1914), 35
Morhange-Sarrebourg, 34–5
Morocco, Germany and, 11, 12
Mount Kemmel (1918), 137, 142
Mussolini, Benito, 12, 24
Namur, 34, 35, 36
Narotch see Lake Narotch
Naumann, Friedrich, 7–8
Neuve Chapelle, battle (1915), 63
New Zealand, Gallipoli campaign (1915–16), 59
Nicholas II, Tsar of Russia, 109, 110
Nicolson, Sir Arthur, 15
Nivelle, Genl Robert, 79, 80, 97–8, 104, 105–7
Novogeorgievsk, 70
oil, importance of, 48, 130, 144, 148
Ottoman Empire see Turkey
Papen, Lt Col Franz von, 60
Parvus (Alexander Helfand), 124
Passchendaele, battle (3rd Ypres, 1917), 11
2, 113–17, 133; German offensive (1918), 136–7
peace negotiations (1917), 100–101; see also armistice negotiations (Western Allies); Brest-Litovsk
peace treaties (1919), 153
Pedroncini, Guy, 107, 124
Peátain, Marshal Henri-Philippe, 79, 107–8, 116, 139
Piave, Italian resistance (1917), 124
Plumer, Genl Herbert, 113, 115–16
poison gas, British use of, 63, 141; German use of, 61–2, 118, 121, 134
Poland, 8, 9, 69, 70
Popper, Karl, 25
Porsche, contribution to German war effort, 120, 124, 135–6
Porsche, Ferdinand, 7
Portuguese army, Ypres salient (1918), 137
Potoriek, Genl, 18–19, 43–4
Princip, Gavrilo, 19
Prittwitz, Genl Maximilian von, 39
Przemysl, 47, 48, 64–5, 69; see also Carpathian campaigns
railways, eastern front, 42–3, 67–8; Gallipoli, 58; strategic importance, 15–16, 21–2, 35–6, 39; western front, 35–6, 43, 84, 137
Rastenburg, 40
Rawlinson, Genl Sir Henry, 140
Riezler, Kurt, 20, 24–5, 54, 124
Riga offensive (1917), 118, 132
Rommel, Captain (later Genl) Erwin, 120, 122
Romania, 66, 90–91
Royal Navy, 23; blockade, 53–7; counters to U-Boat threat, 102; Dardanelles disaster (1915), 58; Jutland (1916), 82
Russia, 9; armistice with Germany, 5–6, 129–30; arms race, 15; Bolshevik revolution (1917), 30, 108–112; civil War, 153; German protectorate, 130; inflation and famine, 110–11; Ottoman Empire and, 13–14; preparations for war, 15–17; relations with Germany (1915), 61; subsidized by Britain, 104; under Stalin, 154
Russian army, Brusilov offensive (1916), 87–91, 141; Carpathian campaigns, 43–4, 65–9; casualties and losses, 40, 69, 70, 71, 80, 90, 91; collapse and retreat (1915), 69–71, 141; communication problems, 39; exemptions, 46–7; Lake Narotch (1916), 80–81; Masurian Lakes Winter battle (1915), 65; mobilization and initial moves, 21, 22, 38–44; Petrograd mutinies (1917), 108–9; Riga (1917), 118; siege of Przemysl (1915), 64–5; transport problems, 47
Russo-Japanese war (1904–05), 22
Rutherford, Sir Ernest, 102
