by Ross Laidlaw
addressed to a certain ‘Petrus Sabbatius. .’
Antony Bridge in his splendid Theodora states, ‘Before returning to Constantinople she went to Antioch for a time, where she made friends with a celebrated dancer named Macedonia’. He goes on to speculate, ‘that it may well have been through her [Macedonia’s] instrumentality that Theodora. . met the man who was destined so radically to change her fortunes’ [i.e. Justinian]. He confirms, as do other sources, including Gibbon, that on her return to the capital she earned a modest living spinning wool — an enterprise which I’ve had Macedonia take a hand in. The name ‘Petrus Sabbatius’ had now been changed officially to ‘Flavius Justinianus’, for as such he is listed in the consular Fasti for the year 521, the other consul being one Valerius. ‘Flavius’ indicates favoured status as part of the imperial family, perhaps a hint that he was already being groomed as Justin’s successor.
Chapter 7
John the Cappadocian
I have introduced him rather prematurely, as he seemed the ideal person to grasp the significance of ‘the Arabia Felix Question’, and to explain its complexities to others in a clear manner. In real life originally a clerk in the office of the local Cappadocian military commander, rather than in one of the imperial scrinia (as in the story), he was actually chosen by Justinian, not Justin. Coarse and offensively outspoken, he was also loyal, efficient and incorruptible. As praetorian prefect, he made himself indispensable to Justinian through his administrative reforms, cost-cutting exercises and tax-raising measures — the last two of which made him extremely unpopular with many citizens, and were largely the cause of the Nika Riots of 532 (of which more hereafter).
Dhu-Nuwas has invaded Arabia Felix
For convenience in plotting, I’ve had the invasion of Yemen start a little earlier than was actually the case, and telescoped the events of the subsequent counter-attack into a somewhat shorter time-span. Two historical facts enabled me conveniently to involve Justinian in the expedition. Firstly: as Robert Browning in his brilliant and most readable Justinian and Theodora suggests, Justinian may have personally contacted Ella Atsbeha (Elesboas) in response to his appeal. Secondly: we know that about this time Justin offered his nephew command of the Army of the East. Paucity of information concerning Justinian’s doings at this period therefore allowed me to speculate that he might have gone to Ethiopia in a military capacity. (We know that the Romans supplied a naval force to help the Ethiopians. Whether they also sent ground troops is uncertain, although considering the importance of ‘the Arabia Felix Question’, they must have been prepared to do so, if necessary — in which case, it would have fallen to the Army of the East to provide the required contingent.)
As for the expedition itself, beyond the fact that its outcome was successful, little is known about the actual campaigning — which allowed me to use my imagination to chart its progress. In hindsight, it seems a pity that the Romans neglected to exploit the Ethiopian victory over Dhu-Nuwas — a victory which surely offered them a golden opportunity to extend their influence in Arabia, Ethiopia, and the Horn of Africa, with perhaps in time the possibility of opening up a ‘Second Front’ in the struggle against Persia. Another, and most relevant consideration (one of those intriguing ‘what ifs’ of history) is this: had the Romans followed up the recapture of Yemen with an expansionist policy in the region, then Islam might never have come to pass.
Chapter 8
cut from a ‘living’ animal
James ‘the Abyssinian’ Bruce, Scottish ‘Renaissance Man’ and explorer (he discovered the source of the Blue Nile in 1770), published an account of his travels in Abyssinia (Ethiopia) in 1790. Many of his claims in this work — e.g. his reference to a steak being cut from a living cow, seemed so extraordinary that they were generally disbelieved, although subsequently vindicated in toto.
crowned by the ramparts of a mighty fortress
Magdala was taken and destroyed by a British expedition under Sir Robert Napier in 1868. The campaign was mounted in response to a public outcry, after several British subjects were imprisoned in Magdala by the mad Abyssinian emperor, Theodore.
The great machines. . were duly being assembled
Some idea of the fearsome power and destructive capability of Roman catapults can be gained from the following passage in Josephus’ The Jewish Wars. ‘One of the men. . had his head carried away by a stone [and] shot. . to a distance of three furlongsv. . More alarming even than the engines was their whirring drone, more frightful than the missiles was the crash.’
N.B. In Chapters 7 and 8, I’ve relied mainly on imagination and evidence from later periods in depicting Ethiopian warriors, as there is a dearth of contemporary material regarding their appearance. In arming them with spears and rawhide shields (standard equipment for as far back as records show) I imagine I’m on pretty safe ground. But having some with swords? Nilotic warriors have used European-looking swords well into modern times (e.g. as brandished by the Khalifa’s army in that splendid film of 1939, The Four Feathers). But how far back did the practice go? Some have suggested that it stemmed from acquisition/copying of Crusaders’ swords. If so, I can see no reason why the date should not be extended even further back — to the long, cutting spatha of late Roman times.
Chapter 9
a cruel surprise awaits the poor, duped girls
Sadly, a problem which — thanks to ‘people trafficking’ from Eastern Europe and Asia — the West is only too familiar with today.
Justinian was visibly impressed
In his Justinian and Theodora, Robert Browning states that, ‘she quoted the orator Isocrates [to Justinian] with electrifying effect’. I’ve used this incident to suggest that it marked a turning point in their relationship: the moment when he fell in love with her — for her mind.
a Seneca to my Nero
Lucius Annaeus Seneca (c. 4 BC-65 AD), philosopher, man of letters, and a noble, upright character, was entrusted with the education of the young Nero. For a time Seneca was able to exert a salutary effect on the boy; when Nero became emperor however, his essential viciousness of character came to the fore, and he degenerated into the monstrous tyrant he is remembered as today. Disillusioned, Seneca allowed himself to become involved in a plot to murder Nero. But, on the plot failing and his part in it being discovered, he committed suicide.
compensation for brothel-owners
The amount eventually settled on was five nomismata — about thirty pounds in present value.
I love you. . in the sense that Plato means
Despite Procopius’ attempt (in his Secret History) to portray Theodora as a raging nymphomaniac, I remain strongly of the opinion that the love between her and Justinian was — as I’ve suggested in the Notes for Chapter 3 — more about a meeting of minds than anything physical, while their wedded state remained strictly monogamous. Even Procopius can find no evidence that she was anything but faithful to Justinian after their marriage. There is some evidence that they may have produced a daughter, who died young. If so, she was their only offspring — although there doesn’t appear to have been any physical reason why they should not have had more children. All of which suggests that sex may well have been a low priority for both of them. Justinian comes over as an ascetic intellectual for whom sex may even have been mildly repugnant. (Again, see Notes for Chapter 3.) As for Theodora, occasional prostitution dictated by economic necessity, combined with her experience as the mistress of Hecebolus may well (as has been recorded concerning many women with similar experience*) have put her off sex — at least with men. (See Notes for Chapter 6.) Her total commitment to the causes she espoused on behalf of prostitutes, women in general, and the Monophysites, suggests that her sex drive may have been sublimated into, or replaced by, the energy she devoted to these all-consuming passions.
I’ll pay you back for that
Procopius of Caesarea (c. 500 to after 562), a lawyer by training, was military secretary to Justinian. As such, he was an eye-witness t
o many of the events which he describes, with commendable objectivity, in his The Wars of Justinian. However, in addition he wrote the Secret History, a vicious and scurrilous attack on Justinian and Theodora — particularly Theodora. Just why he should have taken against her so venomously is a mystery; I’m tempted to think that something like the incident I’ve described may have been the cause.
Chapter 10
an invitation from the Peacock Throne
For dramatic reasons I’ve slightly put back the date of Damascius’ and Simplicius’ acceptance. They (plus five other Athenian professors: Eulamius, Priscian, Hermeias, Diogenes and Isidore) set off for Ctesiphon after the new Great King — Chosroes (Khusro) — had invited them following his enthronement in 532.
You can’t touch me — it’s against the law
Up to this time there had existed, as Robert Browning says in his Justinian and Theodora, ‘general immunity’ from corporal punishment for the upper classes. He then goes on to relate how John of Cappadocia’s subordinates ‘dared to imprison and flog men of high social position for non-payment of taxes’.
devastated by a terrible earthquake
In the interests of simplification, I have conflated the terrible earthquake of 526 (in which, according to Procopius, many public buildings were flattened, and 300,000 people killed) with the less severe one of 29 November 528.
to ferry her across the Bosphorus
To enable Theodora to reach her destination expeditiously, I have contracted the time the trip would have taken. By the shortest route, Hieron was above four miles from the nearest harbour in Constantinople.
a complete reform of Roman Law
This hugely ambitious and historic project (which still has relevance today) was achieved with incredible speed, with no sacrifice of scale or thoroughness — thanks to the energy, expertise, and organizing ability of Tribonian, the great jurist commissioned by Justinian to see it through. The Code of 529 was followed in 533 by the Digest, a carefully edited and condensed compilation of all the responses of jurisconsults (such as Gaius and Papimian) of the classical period — a mind-boggling task involving the reduction of three million lines of text to one hundred and fifty thousand! To enable lawyers easily to comprehend and utilize the great new legal corpus, a training-manual for law students — the Institutes (in use until the twentieth century) — was published in the same year as the Digest. Today, Tribonian’s great work forms the basis of the law of many European countries, especially that of Scotland and Holland.
free to love each other outwith marriage
A rather liberal interpretation on Macedonia’s part, of one aspect of certain secret rites exclusive to unmarried women in the classical Greek period, in which Sapphic practices took place. (In her fascinating television series about ancient Sparta, Bettany Hughes refers, in this context, to ‘girl on girl’ liaisons.)
the two hundred and third from the Founding of New Rome
Events in the Eastern Empire were now increasingly being dated from the founding of Constantinople — anno regiae urbis conditae, rather than by the consuls (whose office anyway was soon to be abolished) for a particular year. The system of dating from the founding of Constantinople (AD 330) can be seen in the Chronicle of Marcellinus Comes (not to be confused with the fourth century historian Ammianus Marcellinus) — an invaluable source of information for the early Justinianic period. The Chronicle ends in 534, but was continued in an Additamentum (covering the years 534 to 548) by an anonymous ‘Continuator’.
Chapter 11
appointed as quaesitor
The office was actually created by Justinian a few years later, in 535. But as its purpose was to deal with public order offences, it seemed appropriate to introduce it here.
Chapter 12
more civilized values than in Sulla’s time
Which made the executions of Sunday, 11 January all the more shocking, especially as the government was widely blamed for provoking the disturbance in the first place. In England, as recently as the early nineteenth century, there existed close on two hundred capital offences (mainly for crimes against property), some of them bizarrely harsh: ‘stealing anything whatsoever from a bleaching-field’, ‘cutting down young fruit-trees at night’ (my italics) etc. By comparison, Justinian’s Empire seems, in this context, a model of enlightened humanity — capital punishment, even for murder, being rarely carried out.
In Justinian’s tablinum. . were assembled
In addition to those persons mentioned in the text, Narses was also present. However, as his part in the ensuing events was peripheral, I have not included him. On the evidence available it seems unlikely that Procopius was actually present; Count Marcellinus, on the other hand, might well have been, especially as he is known to have been a loyal supporter of Justinian. The two agentes are conjectural. For the purposes of the plot, I have included Procopius at the meeting, portraying him as a sort of double agent — ‘an ear of Julianus planted in the Palace’. Artistic licence; but his private loathing of the royal couple (as clearly demonstrated in his Secret History) makes such a role entirely in character. The false rumour that Justinian had fled was actually started by one Thomas, an imperial secretary, due to a misunderstanding.
Chapter 13
based on the basilica
Notable examples of this type of church still standing are: S. Apollinare Nuovo, in Ravenna, Sta Sabina and S. Paolo fuori le Mura, in Rome, Constantine’s Church of the Holy Wisdom, in Bethlehem — to name but four.
marbles of every hue
A contemporary poet, Paul the Silentiary, describes in a poem, Descriptio Sanctae Sophiae, the various stones and marbles used to decorate the interior of the church: the Carystian — pale, with iron veins; the green marble of Laconia; the Carian — from Mount Iassis, with oblique veins, white and red; the Lydian — pale, with a red flower; etc.
Chapter 14
Some of us who love Rome
The tendency of people in modern times to see the citizens of the East Roman Empire as somehow not being ‘real’ Romans, was certainly not shared by those citizens themselves. As Antony Bridge in his brilliant book Theodora says of them, ‘They were. . intensely conscious of being an heir to the eternal world of Rome. . their pride in themselves as Romans became even greater than it had been before the barbarians began to encroach upon the Empire. . Their role as defenders of civilization often seemed a very lonely one’.
Emerging from the tunnel at the coast
In the seventh century, the Berber princess Al-Kahina was besieged in the amphitheatre by Muslim forces. A strong tradition has it that the building was connected by a tunnel to the coast, enabling Al-Kahina to taunt the besiegers by waving fresh fish from the topmost tier of seats. But could the tunnel story be just that — a story, perhaps deriving from the fact that an underground aqueduct leads to the amphitheatre? Whatever its origins, I felt that the legend was too good not to use.
Chapter 15
the long cavalry column
In the text, I have simplified the appearance of the units in the column, so as not to overload the reader with information. On the march, cataphracts would have stowed their armour in a case behind their saddles. In addition to spare horses, riders would have taken the following impedimenta: small tent or extra cloak (a heavy one) for bivouacking, 20–30 lbs. of hardtack, flour, or other provisions, water-bottle, cooking utensils, cloak, javelin cases, spare horseshoes or, if the horse was unshod, a hoof-cleaning tool. Strategikon — a sixth century military manual by one Mauricius — is a mine of information for such details.
stocky. . men with yellowish skins and flat Oriental faces
The Huns — who burst upon the scene in the late fourth century, forcing the Goths to take refuge in the Roman Empire (an event which set off a chain reaction resulting, a century later, in the Fall of the Western Empire) — were most likely of Mongol stock from Central Asia. Some scholars equate the Huns with the Hsiung-Nu who long terrorized China, and Gibbon, refe
rring to Jordanes’ famous description of Attila, affirms that it corresponds in all details to that of ‘a modern Calmuck’. The Kalmucks, according to The New Penguin English Dictionary, are ‘a group of Mongolian peoples inhabiting a region stretching from W China to the Caspian Sea’.
Chapter 16
Theoderic. . had proved a model ruler
Given a Roman education in his youth as a hostage in Constantinople, Theoderic succeeded his father as king of the Ostrogoths, a Germanic tribe who had settled in the East Roman Empire. Emperor Zeno persuaded the Romanophile Theoderic to lead his people to Italy which he would take over as the emperor’s vicegerent (in reality to rid the Empire of a potentially dangerous threat). There was just one problem — Italy was already under the rule of another German monarch, Odovacar, who had seized control in AD 476 after sending the last Western emperor into exile. Nothing daunted however, Theoderic defeated Odovacar, to become for most of his long reign of thirty-three years (493–526) one of the best rulers Italy ever had, establishing a system of benevolent apartheid for Goths and Romans. Towards the end of his life he became justifiably suspicious that Italian senators were plotting with Justinian (eminence grise to his uncle, the emperor Justin) for Italy to be reintegrated into the Roman Empire. As a result, his final years were darkened by acts of savage retribution. (See John Moorhead’s excellent Theoderic in Italy.)
