Evidence from mummies, including those of Ramses II and his son Merenptah, demonstrates that the wealthy ate too much meat and animal fat, with them showing signs of arteriosclerosis – or hardening of the arteries – common with high cholesterol. Other causes have been suggested for this ailment, such as poor ventilation in the homes and temples where fires were lit and incense was burnt. Many people suffered from parasitic worms and other infections (see chapter eight); constant smoke inhalation from hearths and incense, causing similar damage to that of smoking in the modern world, could all have exacerbated arteriosclerosis.
Archaeological evidence shows the ancient Egyptians had spoons and knives but nothing that could be used as a fork, indicating they ate with their hands. Moreover, royal banquet scenes from the Amarna Period show Akhenaten chewing on a rib which he holds in his hand, and one of the princesses is biting down on an entire roast duck which she holds in her hands. As these are royal scenes it indicates that this was indeed the etiquette for the upper classes, and therefore no doubt for the lower classes too.
A great deal of meat, fowl and fish was dried using salt or by simply hanging it in the sun. In the eighteenth dynasty tomb of Nakht (TT52) ducks are shown being packed into jars which were filled with salt or pickling brine, for consumption in later months.
Fish were never offered to the gods and they are never depicted in offering scenes to the gods or the deceased. This is because the method of drying was too close to mummification to be considered sacred. Some fish were pickled in oil and there is a market stall image in the tomb of Ipuy (TT217) where a woman appears to be selling fishcakes, indicating fish was eaten.
A text from El-Lahun lists the numbers of fish gutted and prepared in the town, and although the name of the fish is missing the quantities are present and include more than 1000 gutted rat-fish and 400 adj-fish,65 showing that for a population of about 3000 the fish intake was quite substantial. However, although it has been assumed that fish formed a staple for many people, recent studies have indicated that this may not in fact be the case. In 2014, results of a study carried out by a French team on forty-five mummies in the museum in Lyons were published.66 They studied the carbon isotopes in the mummies and compared them to pigs that were given controlled diets, in order to ascertain what the Egyptians ate. The most surprising result was that there was in fact very little fish in the diets, with the main food group being of a cereal nature, which supports the general idea that most Egyptians consumed a mostly vegetarian diet. It would be interesting to know whether any of these mummies were priests who were unable to consume fish, at least while they were working, which would obviously skew the results.
For those who did eat meat, on the whole it was cooked in its own juices, although more than thirty different oils were used for cooking (including sesame, olive, almond, linseed and radish oil) and numerous spices were used for flavour, such as cumin, coriander seeds, cloves, dill, lettuce seeds, cinnamon, mustard, mint, fenugreek, rosemary and wild marjoram, all of which have been found in tombs.
In addition to fat, other by-products from animals were commonly used. Evidence shows they kept goats, cows and sheep for their milk. It is unknown whether they drank the milk on its own, but it was used in recipes and for making cheese, which was exchanged in the marketplace. There were two cheese types that are still served today: gebna and labna. Labna is made by straining salty yoghurt into a creamy consistency, and gebna is made from harder salted curds and kept for two to three days to firm. The tomb of Hor-Aha from the first dynasty yielded remains of a substance which could be identified with this cheese.
For the majority of people vegetables and pulses formed the basis of their diet, including lettuce, lentils and chickpeas (called hawk-face due to their shape), hummus and ful nabed (broad beans), ful madames and tirmis. Onions, which were smaller and sweeter than today, were eaten like apples, and there is an image from the non-royal tomb of Horemheb at Saqqara which shows a soldier eating an onion in this way. Food was garnished with garlic, radishes, leeks, cabbages, cucumbers and celery. An image from Tell el-Amarna shows a man eating his packed lunch, which comprised bread, cucumber and an onion, all washed down with beer. Evidence from El-Lahun indicates that many of the houses had a small garden to grow beans, peas and cucumbers. At Tell el-Amarna they were also trying to grow olive trees. Traditionally these had been imported and the people of Amarna clearly developed a taste for them.
The Egyptians also ate a great deal of fruit, which was used as a sweetener in food, wine and beer, as well as being used to make cakes and sweet desserts. The variety of fruit included watermelons, pomegranates, raisins, figs and dates. Although mandrake fruits are toxic it is thought they were used as narcotics at parties and are often shown being held to the nose of revellers. Most desserts were fruit-based, in particular dates. The equivalent of pastry chefs were known as ‘workers in dates’, and they produced such snacks as flapjacks or oatcakes made with crushed grain and oil or fat, sweetened with honey.
The fig, in ancient Egypt, had a religious as well as a practical association. The Lady of the Sycamore, a form of Hathor, provided figs and water to the deceased in order to ensure they lived for eternity. The sycamore fig, or wild fig, was small and yellow and had a more astringent taste than ordinary figs. Tomb images show traditional fig trees being cultivated in the gardens of the wealthy and wild trees by their tombs, indicating the fruit from both were savoured.
Excavations at El-Lahun and Deir el-Medina show the Egyptians also had carob from the powdered pods of St John’s Locust, often used as a chocolate substitute. Carob had been grown in Egypt from the earliest times and could also have been used as a sweetener.67
The Egyptian love of food and flavour was rather similar to that of modern societies, and they were very good at producing banquets from minimal ingredients, using all parts of the animal or plant. They were a very practical people, in food production as well as in home improvements and improving their income through cottage industries. The Egyptians worked hard, but as we shall see in the next chapter, they also liked to relax and enjoy themselves.
2.
PASSING THE TIME
‘I want to drink to drunkenness; my throat is dry as straw.’ 1
The Egyptian love of food and over indulging show it was more than a simple necessity for life and survival, and was in fact a favoured pastime in the form of elaborate banquets. Banquets were held for any number of reasons, including funerals, religious ceremonies or general celebrations. They are regularly portrayed in non-royal tombs showing numerous guests, often segregated by sex, seated on elaborate chairs or kneeling on the floor. Married couples, however, generally sat side by side, although as they were often related to the tomb owner and held some significance in the tomb scenes their preferential treatment is not surprising. Due to the peculiarities of Egyptian art it is unknown whether the segregated revellers were literally in separate rooms, sitting opposite each other or if this was simply an artistic characteristic bearing no resemblance to the reality of an Egyptian banquet.
One of the main problems with banquets as they are depicted in the tombs is the number of guests in relation to the house sizes discussed in chapter one. The rooms were all too small to accommodate many people, so it is suggested that large banquets were held outside in the town squares or in temporary structures2 in the courtyard of palatial homes, perhaps around the central pool. However, if the banquets were held within the homes, this goes some way to explaining the segregation in the tomb images, with men and women in different rooms, rather than all the guests in one place. Such segregation could therefore have been a natural separation of people as they mingled throughout the house for a party, as often happens in modern day situations.
Regardless of the seating plan, servants made sure wine and beer flowed freely and tables were piled high with food. Many people overindulged, and in one eighteenth-dynasty tomb the servant encourages a guest, ‘Drink this, my lady, and get drunk,’ to which
the lady replies, ‘I shall love to be drunk!’3 Not surprisingly some scenes show both men and women vomiting into vessels held by servants. While it seemed acceptable to overindulge on wine at these banquets, the Middle Kingdom ‘Teaching of Khety’ (otherwise known as the ‘Satire of the Trades’) insists this is not suitable behaviour: ‘If you have eaten three loaves, drunk two jugs of beer and the belly is not yet sated, restrain it!’4
Musicians, both male and female, entertained the guests. There was often a lutist, a flute player, a harpist and a couple of girls keeping time with drums or by clapping. They were often led by a chironomist, who was a singer who made gestures at the musicians, rather like a musical director,5 keeping them in time with each other. Sometimes he is depicted holding his hand to his ear, indicating he was singing. The music and singing was followed by dancers and acrobats, who were primarily women, wearing little more than a belt made of shells and a large weighted wig, which swung as they moved.
Singing was an essential means of entertainment, not only at banquets but also at religious ceremonies or daily activities, and agricultural workers even had songs to mark the passing of their daily chores. An Old Kingdom farming song, for example, which was possibly sung by two groups, follows thus:
Q – O West! Where is the Shepherd? The shepherd of the West?
A – The shepherd is in the water with the fish. He speaks with the phagos-fish and converses with the oxyrhynchus fish.6
This was possibly sung in a round between different groups. Another song for the harvest had a flautist in the field to accompany the singing;
Q – Where is the one skilled at his job?
A – It is I.
Q – Where is the hard-working man? Come to me.
A – It is I! I am dancing.7
There was even a song sung by Old Kingdom servants about carrying their master in his sedan chair: ‘Happy are they that bear the chair! Better it is for us when full than when it is empty.’8
Ancient Egyptian people liked the outdoor life, and perhaps carrying a sedan chair outside was better in their mind than being inside a hot, stuffy building all day. Therefore, many recreational pastimes were conducted outside. In particular, hunting, fishing and fowling were common sports for the elite. The Fayoum was a popular place to catch birds using throw-sticks or to fish in the lake with spears. In fishing and fowling scenes in tombs from the Old Kingdom, the tomb owner is seen standing in a small papyrus skiff with his wife and children seated or standing at his feet. Their role was a subordinate one and often they are shown handing things to the tomb owner, such as spears or throw-sticks.
The throw-sticks were thrown at birds as they broke cover and it was necessary to disturb the birds in order to make them fly. Either a cat was sent into the marshes, a servant shook the papyrus stems to disturb the birds or the tomb owner held a decoy bird – a tamed bird whose call attracted others to the area.9 Marsh-hunting was considered a demonstration of the virility of the hunter, and was such an important aspect of elite daily life that such scenes soon became essential for entering the afterlife. Spell sixty-two of the Coffin Texts states, ‘Water birds by the thousands will come to you, which lie on your way. You hurl your throwing stick at them, and they are thousands that drop with the sound of its path through the air, namely sa-geese, green-breast birds, trp-geese and male st-geese.’10
The fowling scenes are always accompanied by a corresponding fishing scene, where the tomb owner, in the same vessel, thrusts a long spear into the water, catching the fish swimming past the boat. The papyrus skiff was a rather unstable vessel in which to stand upright while thrusting a spear into the water, and there is a certain amount of artistic license employed in these scenes. In order to spear the fish it would be necessary to bend at the waist and thrust from a crouched position, although this would not look as elegant in the images. The tomb owners are always shown standing tall. There were two prongs on the end of the spear and in some images there is a fish on each prong, presumably caught with a single thrust. This method of catching fish was particularly difficult and required a great deal of skill, further emphasising that fishing with spears and hunting fowl with throw-sticks were sports rather than a means of catching necessary food.
Those who craved more excitement hunted in the desert for lion, gazelle, wild ox, wild sheep, jackal, wolf, hare, fox, hyena and ostrich. In the New Kingdom desert hunting was carried out on a chariot, which was the easiest way to catch fast animals like gazelles and hares.
Imenemheb in his eighteenth-dynasty tomb (TT85) is depicted as a hippopotamus hunter, something that was previously only the prerogative of the king, showing that big-game hunting became the pastime of the rich as well. The king, however, was still the only hunter depicted killing wild bull from the papyrus thickets.11 Generally, anything caught during the hunt was eaten and the skin, fur or feathers used.
For a riverine society one would expect swimming to be a popular pastime, or at least a common life skill, although it is not often depicted. In the ‘Biography of Harkhuf’ (sixth dynasty) he recalls when he brought a pygmy on his ship to entertain the king. The king is concerned about the pygmy’s safety and tells Harkhuf that he is responsible for ensuring ‘he doesn’t fall into the water’. This indicates that should this have happened the pygmy may have drownd as he could not swim. In the Kadesh battle scenes of Ramses II, the Hittite king falls into the water and needs to be rescued, suggesting to the Egyptian propaganda machine that ‘others’ – or foreigners – were unable to swim, as a direct contrast to the Egyptians, who could.
Moreover, there are a number of cosmetic spoons depicting young girls stretched out with the bowl of the spoon in their hands. These bowls are often decorated with images of birds, indicating that they likely depict the girls swimming rather than simply lying down. These spoons are clearly erotic images but their realism suggests that some young women were able to swim. Clearer depictions of girls swimming can be seen on a twenty-second-dynasty silver bowl12 from Tanis which depicts a number of girls swimming among fish, birds and flowers, and an ostracon, now in Turin, also shows a girl swimming. All of these girls are shown naked except for a large wig, and it has been suggested that as it would be impossible to swim in such a wig there was erotic symbolism to its depiction in these scenes.13
The Middle Kingdom nomarch Kheti boasts that he had swimming lessons with the king’s children,14 something he was clearly proud of, which tells us the royal children and therefore the king were also able to swim. However, generally people were only depicted swimming if it was necessary as part of their job. In the tomb of Djar at Deir el Bahri a fisherman is depicted underwater untangling a fishing net and adjusting the weights.15 Swimming in the Nile was a dangerous activity as the crocodiles and hippopotami which lived within posed a great threat, perhaps limiting the appeal of swimming as a regular pastime.
Many people worked on the river and this obviously affected their free time and means of entertainment. While there are no records of boat races, there is no reason why they would not have happened. There is, however, evidence that boatmen enjoyed boat jousting, a rather boisterous, impromptu competition. Such scenes are depicted in New Kingdom tombs, and provide a snapshot of riverine entertainment. The boats were generally light papyrus skiffs, of the type used in marsh hunting, and the competition took place between two, three or four boats, depending on how many happened to pass by at the same time. The fishermen used the long rowing poles to push the men from the other boats into the water. Once they got close enough the men abandoned the poles and used their arms to achieve the same ends. Once someone fell into the water the competition was over. They then helped them back onto the boats. In one scene, an unfortunate man who has fallen into the water has been seized by a crocodile, emphasising the danger of such boisterous games on the Nile. Sometimes the participants took it too far and used their poles to beat their competitors, shouting things like ‘break his skull open!’,16 indicating that perhaps some people were too competiti
ve for such violent sport.
When the Egyptians were not feasting or hunting they were big fans of board games and, perhaps by association, gambling. There are at least three popular board games from the archaeological record: senet, mekhen and hounds and jackals (the shield game). Everyone could play these games, either with a purpose-made board or by scratching a makeshift board into the sand and using pebbles as pieces. On the roof of the temple of Khonsu at Karnak there are make shift senet boards scratched into the floor blocks in the shade of the pylon, upon which the priests played while they were on watch on the temple roof.17 Unfortunately there are no surviving rules for any of these games.
The Egyptians did not have dice and used throw-sticks or knuckle bones instead. Throw-sticks had one dark and one light side, and knuckle bones, often from sheep, had four distinct faces (flat, concave, convex and twisted). The combination of each side thrown determined how many spaces could be moved. The pieces to be moved across the board varied with each game and were referred to as ‘dancers’.
Mekhen, or the coiled snake game, is the oldest and was popular in the Pre-Dynastic Period and Old Kingdom. The board was constructed of concentric circles representing the coils of a snake, and the Pyramid Texts describe how the dancers should travel around the board from the tail to the head. There are slots along the body of the snake where the gaming pieces were placed. In the tomb of Hesy from the third dynasty, these pieces are depicted in the form of six small lions and six balls. It is thought the lions were used as pieces on the board and the balls were held in the hand and were used to determine the number of spaces moved, rather like dice, although how exactly this worked is not certain.18 There was no standardised direction for the game to be played, as the snakes coil both clockwise and anti-clockwise.
Lost Voices of the Nile: Everyday Life in Ancient Egypt Page 4
