by Jack Seward
Uchi-kubi or "Beheading." Uchi-kubi was also called morokubi, meaning the whole head. Among the three forms of beheading, this penalty ranked the highest in treatment received. The seriousness of the crime was indicated by the choice of place of execution: the premises of the house where confined, at a temple, or in an open field. The criminal was not bound. If his relatives requested the corpse, it would be handed over to them.
Kiri-ume or "Cut Off and Bury." This punishment was limited in its place of execution to a forlorn field. If bound, the criminal was released at the time of execution. A pit was dug, and, as soon as he was beheaded, the body was kicked into it for burial.
Kiri-sute or "Cut Off and Throw Away." The criminal was executed on an out-of-the-way plot of wasteland and his body left exposed on the ground. This punishment was sometimes called uchi-sute, also meaning "cut off and throw away."
Shibari-kubi or"BeheadingWhile Bound." This was actually the same as kiri-ume except that the criminal was bound at the moment of beheading. Moreover, he was buried still bound.
The story of the 47 ronin, who are buried in Tokyo, is the source of many theater dramatizations, notably on the kabuki stage. On these pages are woodblock prints of famous kabuki actors in seppuku scenes: above, the dramatized seppuku of one of the ronin.
"Chushingura" (Treasury of Loyal Retainers) is the most famous kabuki play based on the story of the 47 ronin. The print shows the scene where Lord Asano attacks his tormentor (upper half) which led to Asano's sentence of seppuku (lower half). Kabuki prints courtesy of Waseda Uni-
A highly dramatic scene from a play about a famous Tokugawa magistrate in which he has offered to commit suicide. While the kaishaku-nin (right) stands ready to draw his sword, a messenger (left) bursts into the room and stops the seppuku. These being mere dramatizations, the seppuku rites are not as described in the text.
Footnotes
* The reason why this portentous notice was forwarded at night is that it was believed that such news of doom should not defile the morning (or auspicious) hours of the day.
* It was customary for samurai to carry two swords, one long and one short.
IV
SEPPUKU & SHINJU
Definition of Double Suicide
SHINJU in Japanese literally means "inside the heart." More fully, it implies that if the heart were cut open, there would be found only devotion to one's lover; thus, "revealing-the-heart death."
To understand this particular method of self-destruction, it must first be noted that it was an age when contact between men and women was almost completely banned, except in the case of married couples. This was an unwritten law, and both samurai and commoners were under irresistible social pressure to obey it. The function of the woman was not to make love or have romance, but to give birth to heirs of the family. Hence, the vulgar saying: "The womb of a woman is a borrowable vessel." It is curious that such a vulgarity originated under these conditions of stern separation of male from female. Confucianism was responsible for bringing forth such a social ethic. Confucianism teaches, "The male and female shalt not sit together even at the seventh year." The whole relation between men and women was colored with this concept. Under the iron rule of feudalism, it was unalterable. Romance or elopement could mean death by fire or crucifixion. Such a social system sooner or later had to produce violent reactions.
In Tale of the Genji written by Lady Murasaki a thousand years ago, there were numerous stories of romance enjoyed by the Japanese of those days before the influence of Confucianism began to be felt. But, in the Edo Period, the only place where one could have free contact with women were the officially licensed gay quarters called yukaku, wherein the women were owned by the establishment or "house" and could be visited after payment of a fee. Even in such quarters, only sex—not love—was allowed. However, it sometimes did happen that men and women fell in love, even in houses of ill-fame. When such girls fell in love, they secretly sent letters protesting their devotions to their sweethearts or tried to demonstrate their feelings by avoiding carnal intercourse with other guests or even sometimes cutting off their little fingers and sending them as tokens of their love.
Sometimes, when their love was thwarted at every turn, the lovers resorted to suicide to "reveal the heart." Properly, the word was shinju-shi, but shi, meaning "death," came to be omitted. This manner of suicide spread among the townspeople very quickly, and the latter part of the Edo Period came to be characterized by this phenomenon. Many stories of shinju remain to this day in the form of novels, dramas, and songs.
Comparison of Seppuku and Shinju
It would be a misinterpretation to think that shinju was the choniris imitation of the samurai's seppuku. There is considerable antithesis therein.
The age was outgrowing seppuku and much that it stood for. Feudalism remained as a meaningless formalism that was suffocatingly inhuman. Voices of opposition from the common people began to make themselves heard. They were under the subjugation of the sword but they were learning that no power on earth has any control over death. The common people found a certain elevation of apperception was required to commit shinju and a new truth was discovered in so doing. The chonin were finding in shinju what the samurai had found in committing seppuku: the sense of joyful fulfillment in sacrificing one's life for an ideal, however mistaken or foolish that ideal might be. They were finding in shinju a worthwhile dqath.
Shinju came to be praised and exalted in the literature of the day. In a sense, shinju served to expose the shallowness and excessive formality of seppuku and hastened its end.
The adherents of seppuku brought forth the following arguments to show the superiority of seppuku over shinju:
1. Seppuku required an admirable mental attitude of composure, while the approach to shinju was characterized by faltering and hesitation.
2. The seppuku knife was the sacred emblem of the samurai spirit, while the "weapon" used to bring about shinju was often only the red cord women used to tie around their waists. (This was used to tie the two lovers together when they threw themselves into rivers, waterfalls, or the sea.)
3. Shinju was often prompted by the exposure of the ignoble crime of adultery.
4. Shinju was often an escape, a fleeing from the pain of living without one's lover. Seppuku, however, was done in fulfillment of one's duty to one's code and class*.
Whereas seppuku could be described as the crowning culmination of Bushido and perhaps of the feudal society from which it grew, shinju arose as a form of desperate resistance and opposition to a civilization that negated humanity.
The prohibition of junshi or self-immolation had dealt a mortal blow to the samurai's moral code of honor. This inhuman practice of trying to follow one's master even beyond the grave should not have been permitted at all, but its prohibition confronted feudalism with a dilemma.
During the period of warfare that lasted for nearly a century, it was perhaps a logical requirement that a samurai should be ready to die for his master. These vassals played for high stakes on the battlefield: their own welfare and that of their children. "To die in the presence of his master's horse" was a favorite phrase that stirred the samurai's ambition, for his offspring would be honored by his master and his master's heirs, if he were to fall in battle.
When peace was finally ushered in under the prodigious generalship of Tokugawa Ieyasu, there were no more such stages for glory; they could no longer "die in the presence of their master's horse." However, down through the time of the Second and even the Third Shogun, there were still generals alive who could not forget past glories in battle. It was understandable why those lords and generals wanted to practice junshi when the Second and Third Shogun died. These were rare opportunities "to die in the presence of the master's horse." To them, loyalty without death was meaningless; there was art even in loyalty.
It was important that the Tokugawa Shogunate had so many loyal lords who would gladly give up their lives, but it was a shocking phenomenon of the fe
udal system itself that the vassals who composed such an asset to the Shogunate had to die when there was no war. This devotion, lofty as it was, only served to weaken the state. Feudalism itself was designed for war, not peace.
This was the fundamental dilemma. Moreover, there were certainly some leaders in the Shogunate system who had awakened to a more humanistic mode of thinking. Finally there came about, under the leadership of such elements, the prohibition of the practice of self-immolation in 1663. It could not have been otherwise. In a sense, it was official recognition that seppuku had lost its raison d'être.
Thereafter, seppuku no longer meant a living sacrifice for a lofty cause, but only a somewhat honorable punishment. Together with the long peace, this situation invited demoralization of the samurai class to the extent that many of the younger ones wore fancy clothes, and effete indulgence held sway over the whole country, especially in Edo. The Genroku* Period was most notable for this tendency. The economic rise of the chonin class spurred on this situation all the more.
True, the code of seppuku was taught all this while; the highest glory for the samurai was still to dedicate his soul and body to his lord. But that opportunity seldom, if ever, came, and, thus, the solemn teachings became only empty words.
Germs of Humanity in Battle Records
The feudal ideology was built on a basis of artificial social relations. Therefore, it is quite conceivable that such a system would sooner or later run afoul of basic human nature, leading to its dissolution.
It is interesting to study a few examples of the historical writings from the formative periods of feudalistic morality, decidedly showing a changing faith.
Kajiwara Kagetoki, a distinguished commander, had two sons, Genta and Saburo. Commanding an infantry troop of five hundred, he invaded the enemy's camp. After withdrawal, Genta was not to be found. "Where is he?" Kagetoki asked. "Probably he pressed too deeply into the enemy's ranks; he may have fallen, for he is nowhere to be seen," answered one of his vassals. Kagetoki, shedding tears, said, "Do you know why I risk myself in war? It is only for the sake of my sons. If Genta is slain, there is little reason for me to live." So saying, he again attacked the enemy, leading on to great deeds.
The gallant fighting of Kagetoki was not motivated by loyalty to his master, but appears to have been for the sake of his sons. Here he was in conflict with the code of the samurai. Though his rashness coincidentally led on to great deeds, we find his human emotions in conflict with the ways of feudalism.
During the strife of the Hogen Period, when the whole Minamoto family was split into two factions, Tametomo, the youngest son and a great archer, was about to loose an arrow at his eldest brother, Yoshitomo. At the critical moment, the latter cried, "Wait, I will propose a bargain. If you are defeated, I will save your life; if my side is defeated, I wi.ll ask you to save my life!" Tametomo agreed and lowered his bow. Such bargaining, even between brothers, was not in keeping with the rigid feudal code.
Pursuing a defeated troop of Heike soldiers at the Ichino-tani Citadel, Kumagai Jiro Noanzane spurred his horse up to the beach, thinking that the Heike leaders would escape to sea by jumping into boats moored along the shore of Suma. He sighted an imposing samurai, wearing a golden sword, riding into the sea to catch one of the boats that was already afloat. Kumagai called to him, challenging him to a duel. Hating to be thought a coward, the Heike warrior plunged back to the beach, where Kumagai was waiting. After fighting a short while, the Heike warrior suddenly appeared quite tired. Resigning himself, he removed his helmet and requested Kumagai to cut off his head. To Kumagai's surprise, he was a handsome boy of about sixteen. Kumagai's thoughts turned to his own son of the same age; when the latter suffered a slight wound that same morning, how worried he had been! If this young warrior were killed, how his parents would grieve! He was tempted to be merciful. But then it was too late! His own troop came riding up to him. Fearing to be thought soft or traitorous, he swiftly cut off the head of this young, handsome samurai. After this, he renounced the world and became a monk.
Kumagai, although he succeeded in avoiding the betrayal of his faction, almost succumbed to humane feelings. At least in his mind, feudalism was losing its hold.
Disintegration from Within
Peace lasted for nearly 300 years during the Edo Period, and feudal society flourished. But, even while thriving, it began to show indications of its eventual dissolution. The elements contributory to this disintegration are significant.
Peace enhanced commerce and artisanship and commoners began to accumulate wealth. Inflated finances, aggravated by the introduction of luxuries, gradually lowered the living standards of the samurai class in general. The policy taken by the Shogunate to cope with this situation was the same as that taken by some feudal lords in Europe: onerous taxation, prohibitive edicts against effete ways, recoinage, loans from commoners, etc. None of these methods, however, afforded a fundamental solution to the ever worsening feudal economy. Finally, the stipends of their vassals were borrowed against by the lords, which was, of course, tantamount to reducing the stipends. Poverty among the samurai prevailed everywhere, which was, no doubt, contributory to bringing about their distrust of the feudal system. The samurai class of this period was completely separated from the land, in contrast to that of the Kamakura Period. They were reduced to the status of mere "salarymen."
Swordsmanship did nothing to assist them financially in an age of peace. A talent for business began to mean something, even among the samurai. Such economic pressures gradually eroded the samurai spirit.
A famous physician, Sugita Gempaku, of the Edo Period, left the following criticism:
Living under an auspicious reign for nearly two hundred and fifty years, chivalry has dwindled away, and even the direct feudatorial samurai and other high retainers, in seven cases out often, are dressed like women; far from entertaining noble ambitions, they behave like merchants; the samurai now know no shame.
The ruling samurai class could not compete with the economic power of the merchant class and thus began the rise of the commoner. Destitute lords, in exchange for loans from wealthy merchants, gave them the privilege of wearing swords. Commoners wearing swords! Feudal dignity was offended.
Clever samurai married daughters of wealthy merchants, and other samurai pretended not to be envious.
The drastic edict of prohibition against oibara or self-immolation was the first and most decisive display of humanism in the comparatively early days of the Tokugawa reign. The following humanistic expression found in Hihon Tamakushige is worthy of notice:
However courageous it may be to perform seppuku, the custom is not a recommendable one. Not only is a life lost, but also it is a pity to cause one's parents, wife, and children bitter grief. His Late Excellency Ietsuna, the Fourth Shogun, prohibited self-immolation. Your Excellency too should strictly prohibit all kinds of seppuku.
This was humanitarian advice, and it endangered Bushido. Such ideas must have been held by many others, though none of them left their views in writing for posterity.
The custom of shinju did much damage to the cause of feudalism. Under the feudal system, one married to beget issue who in turn would continue to serve the feudal lord. Therefore, choosing a bride was not a job for a young, inexperienced man; it was presumed that the parents would choose the best partner for their son. True love and romance played no part in this scheme of things.
Opposition to this suppression of the freedom to love whom one pleased was expressed by shinju, where the lovers put themselves beyond the control of society.
Not only was shinju a denial of feudal authority, but, when it was done by a samurai and a woman, it also meant a significant change in basic attitudes. In the Japanese code of Bushido, there is the inherent disdain of women (an influence of Confucianism) which is quite different from European chivalry. It is remarkable that some men, however few, were brave enough to love as they pleased in such a social and educational environment. A poignant example
was that of Fujita Geki. Born into a house that was a direct feudatory vassal of the Tokugawa Shogun, he was heir to an annual income of 5,000 koku* of rice. He fell in love with a geisha named Ayaginu and they committed shinju in a farmhouse. A popular song about his tragic romance had a wide circulation in Edo:
Shall I bide with you?
Or take the stipend of
Five thousand, which will it be?
— Better to bide with you!
On the other hand, protesting voices were raised against the declining morals of the samurai. Yamaoka Shummei, in his book, writes:
It is the grand age of peace. People neglect, therefore, warlike preparations, looking upon the ancient facts of seppuku or self-immolation as hateful affairs. To my narrow knowledge, I never hear of a man these days who attempts to investigate such matters. Even if there were such a man, there would be no one who knows enough to teach him.
However, the awakening of humanism among the samurai class itself, as well as financial distress enhanced by inflation caused by commercial prosperity on the part of the merchants, were contributory to lessening the confidence of the ruling class.
A contemporary senryu poem (see footnote, related comments on page 88) eloquently caricatured the plight of the samurai:
The samurai will use
A toothpick even if he hasn't dined!
Decline of Bushido
Dr. Erwin Baelz refers to the essence of Bushido as a severance of emotion from intellect. By this, he means to explain the enigma of the samurai's stoic composure in the face of death by saying that the samurai was able to repress his emotions. However, this view may be disputed. Under the feudal social order, reasoning, i.e., intellect, was not allowed, because it could lead to last-minute rebellions. What was expected of the samurai was "dedicated loyalty" and "filial piety." Any order or statement of the master or father was exempt from critical judgment. Only blind obedience was required. The edicts of the lord were to be obeyed. They brought boon or disaster to the fief or cause.
