The crisis foreseen by Malthus has struck
If there is one action that humanity must urgently undertake to counter its now destructive genetic propensities, limiting its population is truly it. The alarm was sounded in the beginning of the previous century by such insightful precursors as the American Margaret Sanger (1883–1966), a pioneer of birth control, and, later, by her countryman Paul Ehrlich, whose book The Population Bomb created a sensation when it was published in 1968. Moves initiated in various parts of the world as a result of these warnings and advances in contraceptives, including the famous “pill,” first developed in 1951, have unfortunately had little effect so far. The number of humans on Earth has continued its rise (see fig. 12.1). And in Rome, Pope Benedict XVI solemnly reiterated, in October 2008, his unyielding condemnation of any deliberate method of limiting birth other than abstaining from sexual intercourse during the fertile period of the menstrual cycle. As recently as March 16, 2009, on the occasion of a trip to Africa, he again stressed his opposition to the use of condoms, even to prevent the spread of AIDS.
This, in my view, is more than regrettable; it is irresponsible. We need and should expect that the spiritual head of more than one billion human beings will take the initiative in such a critical circumstance, pronouncing it morally justified, if not commendable or, even, obligatory, to oppose the population increase by all reasonable means compatible with human health and dignity. The issue, of course, rests on what is to be considered “reasonable” and “compatible with human health and dignity,” in relation to the gravity of the crisis humanity is facing.
Culling is not a tolerable solution to the population problem
The most drastic means of containing a rapidly rising population rate is the one that hunters sometimes adopt, the culling of herds, preferentially sacrificing aged or sick animals in the process. Applied not so long ago in the Nazi camps, this horrible means is obviously proscribed for humans in all civilized countries. But it is replaced to some extent by the wars and genocides that continue raging in various parts of the planet. With the manufacturing of increasingly powerful weapons of mass destruction, the situation grows steadily worse. There were tens of millions of victims in the last two world wars. One shudders at the idea of what the future has in store for us. But such conflicts are hardly a reasonable solution to our population problem. They are, rather, with starvation and epidemics, part of the nightmare natural selection has in store for us if we do not act against it.
One way or another, the birthrate must be reduced
One means of reducing the global birthrate is by imposing sterilization. Certain eugenists in the not-too-distant past have advocated this strategy, not so much for birth control purposes, but to “purify the race” by rendering the “unfit” unable to procreate. This policy is necessarily totally unacceptable. But such a ban does not extend to voluntary sterilization, which is feasible today by simple surgical procedures, such as Fallopian tube ligation for women and vasectomy for men. I lack statistics on the subject, but it is my impression that few young people choose to undergo these procedures. Societies may, however, be driven to encourage this choice. Widespread voluntary sterilization could become a particularly simple and effective way to control population growth. This is all the more true because such operations have few, if any, harmful effects on hormonal balance and the procedures are often reversible, so that the ability to procreate can be restored in the case of a couple desiring a child, after the loss of one, for example.
Abstaining from sexual intercourse is obviously a way to avoid procreating. It is the solution of choice for all those who make celibacy a condition of priesthood or monastic life. It is, however, known, through all the recent pedophilia scandals, that the choice of celibacy is not always free of destructive complications and may lead to perverse and seriously damaging behaviors.
Homosexual behavior is another form of sexual activity that generates no offspring, but it is, for the most part, likely to be an inborn, possibly environmentally favored proclivity, rather than a deliberately chosen way of life. A society more tolerant toward this sexual orientation, as obtains today in many countries, could, however, produce a certain positive effect, because homosexuality is perhaps more common than we would be tempted to believe. It is up to us to provide this proclivity with the opportunity to manifest itself without prejudice to the parties involved. But this is an ethical issue, quite separate from our population problem.
The most efficient procedures for reducing the number of human beings remain contraception and, as early as possible, interruption of pregnancy, including its preventive form, the “morning-after pill.” It is through such procedures that humanity can best prevent demographic expansion. They are authorized more or less liberally in many countries. But this is not enough. The procedures should be more than just tolerated; they should be encouraged.
Limiting births needs to be encouraged
Given the urgency of the problem, political authorities should, with the support of as many moral authorities as possible, take active positions in favor of limiting births. An average of little more than two children per couple would ensure that a population will not increase. Condoms, diaphragms, intrauterine devices, pills, and other contraceptive means could be provided free to all citizens of procreating age, together with the necessary medical assistance for pregnancy interruption (under some conditions to be defined). Everyone’s freedom to have children should be preserved, but at a price—perhaps through taxes—that would take into account the impact on society of a population expanding beyond a level that is sustainable within reasonable economic and social conditions.
These can be seen as shocking proposals in a world that has always put children at the center of its preoccupations. The desire to have children is one of the strongest urges written in our genes by natural selection and legitimized by custom. Opposing it goes against our innermost nature. But we must recognize the reality of figures and facts. To do nothing is to yield to natural selection, with the destructive consequences it entails.
The measures I recommend risk being considered simplistic; certainly, they involve all kinds of political, social, legal, economic, and other difficulties. My motivation—what I consider my responsibility as a scientist—is to expose the facts, as I see them, and to try to draw logical conclusions as best I can.
“Anti-alarmists” often point out that the problem is mainly economic, and many observations show that there exists an inverse relation between economic development and demographic expansion. Let the former rise, and the latter will fall. This may be true, but only to the extent that economic improvement goes together with the increased practice of birth control. Without this control, the rising economic level cannot cause birthrates to fall. One would rather expect the opposite because of concomitant improvements in health care.
Recommended policies may sometimes have unforeseen consequences. China is an example. The “one child per couple” policy imposed by the Chinese government has resulted in a worrisome decrease in the number of girls relative to the number of boys, a result of prenatal sex determination, allowing the preferential abortion of girls. This outcome has less to do with the policy itself and more with a widespread social prejudice in China, one that encourages families to produce a male heir. This problem is for Chinese society to address and should in no way serve as a pretext to oppose birth control. Note that cynics could point out that a decrease in the number of girls, but not of boys, is likely to favor a reduction of the birthrate.
China’s example shows how local customs may affect policies. It will be up to each culture to decide what means should be allowed, encouraged, or, sometimes, even, enforced to attain the desired goal. Unless measures are taken to curb the human birthrate on a worldwide scale, the “population bomb” is bound to explode, with predictably disastrous consequences. The message from Malthus matters more now than ever.
Epilogue
Two almost contradictory messages eme
rge from my analysis of the human circumstance. One says that our downfall, our eventual extinction and that of much of the living world, is inscribed in our genes. The other tells us that we possess the unique power to use reason to escape this fate. Whether “original sin” or “redemption” gains the upper hand is impossible to predict. But, at first glance, the prospects are not encouraging.
There is a major difficulty: we must deal with two sharply different time scales. As human beings, we live within the limits imposed by our own lifespan and that of our relatives. On a personal and family level, or even on the social, economic, and political levels, our unit of time rarely exceeds a decade, often less in politics. On the other hand, the perspectives that should guide our actions are measured in centuries, if not millennia or more. Under those conditions, many of us are tempted to echo the words attributed to the Marquise de Pompadour, the favorite of King Louis XV of France: “Après nous le Déluge.”
Another difficulty likely to discourage even the most convinced and motivated among us is the feeling of our own impotence. What each of us can accomplish as an individual may appear as of such little import as to seem futile. This is why collective engagement is so critical, why action, under the aegis of political and religious leaders, will be essential.
The situation, however, is far from hopeless, as is made evident by the movement developing around the issue of global warming and climate change. The world is becoming concerned. Measures are being adopted on a national and, even, international level. More impressive, individuals are beginning to act, each in their own little sphere, to economize energy, reduce carbon dioxide emissions, and avoid waste—in short, to incur a small amount of personal discomfort for the sake of a distant common good. This is only one example. One could cite many others, showing that individuals, even masses, can be mobilized for constructive effort. If the world’s leaders could become more actively involved in the fight for the survival of humanity and the rest of the living world—the one depends on the other—the dangers that threaten the future of our planet can be deflected before it is too late.
Index
Africa; migrations out of; Neanderthals in; prehumans in
AIDS
algae
alimentary tract
allergies
Altamira cave paintings, Spain
American Forestry Association
amino acids
amniotic fluid
amniotic pouch
amphibians
anaerobic forms of life
angiosperms
animal(s): alimentary tract; brains; cells; cloning of; communication; developmental mechanisms; domestic; energy derived from combustion of food; evolution of; homeogenes of; male aggression in; migration from water to land; modification of; multicellular; parent mobility; reproductive strategies; segmented; societies; soft-bodied; specialization in; synthesis by; tool-making skills
annelids
antibiotics
anus
apes
arthropods
artificial selection
Asia
ATP (adenosine triphosphate)
Audubon, John James
Australia
Australopithecus
autotrophes
bacteria; ancient/ancestral; antibiotics and; archaebacteria; cancer-causing; cells; in cells; cloning and; cyanobacteria; as endosymbionts; eubacteria; evolution of; in the evolution of life; extremophiles; free-living; groups; photosynthetic; prokaryotic; thermophilic
behavioral defects
Behe, Michael
Belgium
Benedict XVI, pope
Bergson, Henri
Bible/biblical account; evolution and; Genesis; literal interpretation of; veracity of
Big Bang theory
biocatalysts
biochemical systems
biochemistry
biodiversity
bioenergy
biofuels
biology; developmental; modern; molecular
biosphere
biosynthesis
birds; Darwin’s finch
birthrate
blastula
blood: circulation; coagulation
bone marrow
bonobos
brain: cell division and; cells; cerebral cortex; chimpanzee; development; of early humans; epigenetic wiring of; evolution of; ganglia; human; Neanderthal; nerve cells in; rewiring of; structure; synapses. See also brain size
brain size; anatomical changes and; bipedalism and; Cro-Magnons; determined by female pelvis; early human beings; evolution and; hominization and; human; intelligence and; mutations affecting size; prehumans
Brunet, Michael
Buddha
cancer; in plants
canonic bases (A, G, C, U)
carbohydrates
carbon dioxide; atmospheric; emissions
Carson, Rachel
catalysts; for metabolism
Catholic Church; creationism and; evolution and; heliocentric view of the universe; history of cruelty and violence; pedophilia scandals; pope; reappraisal of ethical rules
cell(s); asymmetric division; axons; bacteria in; blood; brain; cancer; chemicals produced in; daughter; dedifferentiation; definition of; dendrites; differentiation; diploid; diversity in; division; division of labor and; embryonic; energy extracted by; eukaryotic; female germ (oocytes); fertilized egg; fusion; gametes; genome of; germ; growth and repair; haploid; human; male germ (spermatozoa); meiosis; membranes; metabolism in; molecular construction; morphogenesis of; mother; oxygen delivered to; photosynthetic; primitive; prokaryotic; red blood; renewal; single mother; somatic; stem; totipotential state of; types
central nervous system
Chad
chance and evolution
Changeux, Jean-Pierre
chemical transmitters
chemistry; cosmic; organic; prebiotic
Chernobyl catastrophe
chickens
chimpanzees; brain size; genome; separation from primates
China
chloroplasts
chromosomes; cloning and; diploid and haploid sets; DNA in; doubling of; recombination (crossing over); Y. See also Y Adam
Church of England
cilia
climate change
cloning; engineering; ethical debates surrounding; human; kinds of; reproductive; stem cells and; therapeutic; uses of
Club of Rome
coenzymes
Commoner, Barry
competition; for resources
complementarity
complexity, irreducible
congeners
conifers
consciousness
contraception
convergence
Conway Morris, Simon
Copernicus
Coppens, Ives
creationism; biblical; instant divine creation
Creutzfeldt-Jakob disease
Crick, Francis
Cro-Magnons
crustaceans
CTP (cytidine triphosphate)
cyanobacteria
cytoplasm
Dart, Raymond
Darwin, Charles; on competition for resources; gene mutations and; modern biology and. See also evolution; natural selection
Darwin, Erasmus
Dawkins, Richard
Dembski, William
Denton, Michael
deoxyribose
Descartes, René
“designer babies”
development; embryological; evolution and; experimental embryology; homeotic genes and; human; mechanisms of; transcription control and
digestion
digestive pouch
dinosaurs
disease(s); congenital; Creutzfeldt-Jakob; in early human beings; epidemics; genetic mutations and; genetic probability of; mad cow; plant; scurvy; Tay-Sachs
diversity of life
DNA (deoxyribonucleic acid); from ancestral bacterium; base pairing; ch
romosomal; coding; combined with proteins; double-helical structure; genetic information stored in; in germ cells; mitochondrial; molecules; molecules (A, G, C, U); mutations; nuclear; replication; role in heredity; sequences; synthesis of; transfer from RNA. See also mitochondrial Eve
dogs
Dolly the cloned sheep
Dubois, Eugene
Dubos, René
early human beings: acquired traits; in Africa; bipedalism in; brain size; manual dexterity; migration out of Africa; predators of; speech capability; survival strategies; tool-making skills. See also prehumans
echinoderms
ecology
Edelman, Gerald
education; role of religions in
egg(s): aqueous medium for; diploid and haploid; fertilized; mitochondria of; unfertilized
Ehrlich, Anne
Ehrlich, Paul
embryology, experimental
embryos: destruction of during cloning; development of; human
end-of-the-world scenarios
endosymbiosis
energy: biological transfer of; economization; electricity as; extracted by cells; in food production; human needs for; information and; natural sources of; nuclear; oxidative production of; renewable sources of; from sunlight; supply; transfer; universal energy mediator; for work
environment/environmentalism
enzymes; bacterial; digestive; evolution of; genetic deficiency of; loss of; oxygen and; protein; reactions catalyzed by
epigenetics
ethics: debates surrounding; religions and
eugenics
Eurasia
Europe
evolution; of animals; of bacteria; Bible/biblical account and; biological; of birds and mammals; of blastopores; brain size and; branching structures in; convergence in; cultural; development and; directed; environmental conditions for; of enzymes; genetic drift and; genome and; history of; intelligent design and; of life; micro; mimicry and; ongoing nature of; opposition to; pace of; role of chance in; without selection; self-organization and; sexual reproduction and; supernatural intervention and; of tool-making skills; vertebrate; vitalism and
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