“Hattori Agency” (Hattori Kikan), 152–54
Hayashi, Keizō: accomplishments, 71–72; American advisers and, 93–94, 118; appointment to head General Group, NPR, 66–68, 69; career, 66, 68, 91; criticism of, 71; discipline, 127–28; on emperor, 114–15, 120; inspection tours, 114; Masuhara and, 67, 72, 97–98; May Day demonstrations and, 168; peace treaty commemoration, 165; Pulliam and, 68–69; on spirit of soldiers, 109–11; weapons plans, 134–35
Hayashi, Senjurō, 114
heitai (Imperial soldiers): later service in NPR, 99; new recruits, 122; self-sacrifice, 116–17, 118–19; spirit, 92, 109, 111–12, 116–17, 119; toughness, 178; treatment by officers, 127; use of term, 121, 122. See also Imperial Army
Higashikuni, Naruhiko, Prince, 35
Hirohito, Emperor: abdication rumors, 165; Constitution Day ceremony, 169–70; constitutional reform and, 39; Hayashi and, 66, 114–15, 120; MacArthur and, 74; surrender, 158. See also emperor
Hirota, Kōki, 50
Hokkaidō, 83, 114, 123–24, 134–35
Honna, Fuminori, 91–92
Hoover, Herbert C., 12
Imai, Takeo, 155
Imoto, Kumao, 63, 64–65
Imperial Army: demobilization, 56, 59; discipline, 178; “Manchuria Clique,” 62; misconceptions of strength, 113–14; as model for NPR, 92–93; national importance, 122; noncommissioned officers, 99, 127; officers, 127; spirit, 92, 109, 110, 111–12, 113–14, 116, 119; strength, 92; uniforms, 126; war in China, 52, 119, 155; weapons, 92–93; Yoshida and, 50. See also heitai
imperial family. See emperor
Imperial forces, former officers: acceptance into NPR, 105–7, 117–18, 130–31, 148, 150–51, 154, 176; beggars, 161; criticism of NPR, 70–71, 72, 102, 152, 153, 154; Diet members, 155–56; divisions among, 70, 150–51; efforts to bring into NPR, 57–58, 60–65, 104–6; excluded from NPR, 29, 50, 56–57, 69, 100–101, 102, 103–4, 105–6; influence on occupation, 59; intelligence activities, 59; military know-how, 147; in rightist groups, 148–50, 151–54; senior, 148–49, 150; views of NPR, 150–51; war crimes trials, 35, 148, 155; worldview, 147, 150, 151–52. See also Japanese Demobilization Bureau; purged officers
Imperial General Staff, 57, 61, 62, 117–18, 155
Imperial Household Agency, 66, 91, 114
Imperial Navy, 56, 59, 99, 113, 122. See also Imperial forces, former officers
Imperial Palace Plaza, 15, 167, 169–70
Imperial Rescript of Emperor Meiji, 116–17, 118–19, 178
Initial Postsurrender Policy for Japan, 35, 56–57
Intelligence Section (G-2), GHQ, 28, 58, 59, 63, 64, 65, 69. See also Public Safety Division; Willoughby, Charles A.
interpreters, 48, 60–61, 85–86, 93, 94, 111–12
Ishiwara, Kanji, 150, 155–57, 164
Izeki, Yujirō, 97, 98, 104–5
Japan: agriculture, 2, 3, 18–19, 159; conditions at end of war, 1–4; food supply system, 2, 3–4, 17–18, 159, 161; industries, 2, 3, 93, 161; life expectancies, 160; military influence, 147–48; mutual security pact with United States, 163, 180–81; national security threats, 82–83, 136, 163; political failures, 176–77; population growth, 2, 160; rebuilding, 1, 3, 5–6; sovereignty regained, 146, 158–65; surrender, 4, 158, 160; trust in authority, 141; U.S. bases, 41–42, 166, 181. See also Diet; emperor; Imperial forces; occupation
Japan Communist Party (Nihon Kyōsantō): acceptance of emperor, 115; Diet members, 13, 133, 166, 169; MacArthur’s purge of Central Committee, 16, 17; May Day demonstrations, 166–69; members, 130; opposition to rearmament, 138; popular support, 4, 13–14, 51; potential infiltration of NPR, 69–70; publications, 162; surveillance by Demobilization Bureau, 59
Japan Self-Defense Forces (JSDF; Jieitai), 42–43, 169, 176, 178, 181
Japan Socialist Party. See Socialist Party
Japanese Commission on the Constitution, 37
Japanese Demobilization Bureau (Nihon Fukuinkyoku), 28, 59–61, 62–64, 65, 69, 153
Japanese Supreme Court, 41–42
Jimmu Tennō, 115
Johnson, Louis A., 13, 19, 20
Johnson, Lyndon B., xx
Joint Chiefs of Staff, U.S., 8, 13
JSDF. See Japan Self-Defense Forces
Kennedy, John F., xix
Kimura, Tokutarō, 137, 138
Kitamura (interpreter), 111–12, 130
Knowlton, Charles E., 30
Kojiki, 115
Konoe, Fumimaro, Prince, 35
Korean War: Chinese strength, 154; effects in Japan, 7, 46, 146; Japanese support of U.S. military, 7–8; North Korean victories, 8, 51–52, 107–8; potential use of NPR, 52–54, 152; Republic of Korea Headquarters, 21–22; surprise attack, 20; U.S. deployments from Japan, 9, 21, 23, 30–31, 82, 83; U.S. units, 8, 9; Yoshida on, 1, 4, 51–52, 55, 144
Kowalski, Frank, Jr.: assignments in Japan, xviii, 21, 22–23, 29–30; as CASA chief of staff, 23, 73–74, 75–77; childhood and family, xiv–xv; children, xvii, xviii, xxii; death, xxii; education, xiv–xvi; health, xvii–xviii, xxi–xxii; inspection tours, 94–95, 114, 134–35; interest in Japan, xx–xxi; inventions, xxi; marriage, xvi; military career, xv–xix; political career, xix, xx–xxi, 159–60; political views, xx
Kowalski, Helene Amelia Bober, xvi, xxi, xxii
Kurushima, Tsuneki, 149
labor unions, 166, 169, 175–76
land reform, 6
language issues, 93–95, 98, 99. See also interpreters
Liberal Party (Jiyūtō), 13, 136, 162
loyalty, 116–17
MAAG. See Military Advisory Assistance Group
MacArthur, Douglas: accomplishments, 5; Asian defense plan, 20; chief of staff, 74–75; inaccessibility, 74–75; on Japan Communist Party, 13–14; Japanese constitution and, 34, 35–39, 40–41, 142, 165, 172; Japanese view of, xx–xxi, 18–19; Korean War, 8–9, 22, 51; letters, 25; life in Japan, 18; National Police Reserve and, 25–27, 31, 41, 174–75; on occupation, 6–7; on peace treaty, 12, 162; police force expansion, 25–27; rearmament order, 10; relations with troops, 18; relieved of command by Truman, 78, 147; Whitney and, 28, 74; Willoughby and, 28, 58, 74. See also supreme commander for Allied powers
Mainichi Shimbun, 37, 38, 141, 142
Makino, Nobuaki, Count, 49
Manchukuo, army of, 100–101
“Manchuria Clique,” 62
Mao Tse-tung, 12, 145
Maritime Safety Board, police forces, 26
Marquat, William F., 74
Masuda, Kaneshichi, 162
Masuhara, Keikichi: appointment, 84; criticism of, 71; Hayashi and, 67, 72, 97–98; headquarters staff, 87–88, 90; inspection tours, 134–35; NPR organization and, 86–87; officer appointments, 100–101, 104; peace treaty commemoration, 164–65; personality, 84–85; on rearmament, 143; relations with Americans, 86, 109; on spirit of soldiers, 109; uniform designs, 125–27; weapons plans, 134–35
Matsumoto, Jōji, 36–38, 39, 41
May Day demonstrations, 166–69
Meiji, Emperor: birthday, 40; Imperial Rescript, 116–17, 118–19, 178
Meiji constitution, 37, 39, 115
Meiji Restoration, 49, 164
Miki, Takeo, 162
militarists: bushidō and, 113; excluded from NPR, 50; ideology, 116–17; in postwar period, 148–57; preventing resurgence, 87; support of rearmament, 54; during war, 54–55. See also Imperial forces, former officers; nationalist organizations; purge
Military Advisory Assistance Group (MAAG): Kowalski as acting chief, 87; officers, 29–30; potential leadership of NPR, 98; relations with civilian leaders of NPR, 84–85, 86, 88, 103, 125, 126, 164; training role, 99. See also Civil Affairs Section Annex; Shepard, Whitfield P.
military spirit. See seishin kyōiku
Murphy, Robert D., 158
mutual security pact, 163, 180–81
Nambara, Shigeru, 13, 15
Napoleon Bonaparte, 109
National Defense Council, 151, 154
National Police Re
serve, director general. See Masuhara, Keikichi
National Police Reserve (NPR; Kokka Keisatsu Yobitai): accomplishments, 177–81; American advisers, 78–81, 98, 101, 103, 118; American officers on staff, 29–31, 45–47, 73–74, 82, 98, 100, 140; Americans in charge, 73, 78, 81–82; assistant director general, 84, 96, 97, 133–34; Basic Plan, 23–24, 27; cabinet supervision, 97; cadre list, 61; camps, 77–81, 83, 94–95, 123, 134; conference on operational policies, 31; corruption allegations, 70; criticism of, 27, 70–71, 72, 123, 129, 131, 152, 153, 154; differences from Imperial forces, 177–80; discipline, 42–43, 178; equipment and supplies, 27, 81, 82, 83, 95; establishment, 25–26, 31–32, 41, 87–88; evaluation, 102, 106–7; expansion, 72, 131, 180; General Group, 66–69, 71–72, 91–92, 96, 98; goals, 51, 53; headquarters, 30–31, 73–74, 86–89; headquarters staff, 87–89, 90, 94, 95, 96, 98, 104–5; induction centers, 61–62, 77–79; infantry divisions, 27–28; legality, 27, 41, 173, 174–75; manuals, 93–94, 103, 173; military nature concealed, 27, 93–94, 121, 122–23, 132–33, 173; need for, 171–72, 173–74; number of personnel, 87–88, 180; organizing, 27–28, 77–83, 85, 86–89, 92–93, 98–101; as police force, 86–87, 88, 93–94, 101, 132; potential communist infiltration, 69–70; potential use in Korea, 52–54, 152; prime ministerial control, 28; public perceptions, 176; readiness, 102, 104, 106; relations with people, 122–25, 127–28, 139, 140–42; as self-defense force, 53, 139, 173; Shepard’s role, 23, 28–31; significance for rearmament, 137–38, 172; use in domestic disturbances, 167, 168–69; Yoshida’s policies, 52, 55, 136–37, 143. See also Civil Affairs Section Annex; weapons; yobitai
National Rural Police (Kokka Chihō Keisatsu): American supervision, 60; director general, 68–69, 86; officers transferred to NPR, 82, 90; recruiting for NPR, 60, 78, 79, 80; size, 25
National Safety Agency (Kokka Hoancho), 87
National Safety Force (NSF; Kokka Hoantai), 72, 131, 169
nationalist organizations, 148–50, 151–54, 155–56, 157. See also militarists
newspapers: articles on NPR, 124–25, 127; circulation, 161; criticism of NPR, 70–71, 129, 131; public opinion polls, 140–43
Ninigi no Mikoto, 115
Nippon Times, 160
Nisei interpreters, 85–86
Nishiura, Susumu, 63, 64–65
Nixon, Richard M., 172
noncommissioned officers: in Imperial Army, 99, 127; in NPR, 102, 127, 139, 178
North Atlantic Treaty, 11
North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO), 12
North Korea, 8, 51–52, 107–8. See also Korean War
Nosaka, Sanzō, 115
NPR. See National Police Reserve
NSF. See National Safety Force
nuclear weapons, 43, 181
O’Brien, John W. A., 24
occupation: accomplishments, 5–7, 160, 171–72; American staff, 6; bureaucratic resistance, 49; conqueror’s mindset, 53–54, 85; effects of Korean War, 9, 21, 146; end of, 158–65; Japanese bureaucrats and, 48–49; life of American troops, 17, 18; MacArthur on, 6–7; military oversight of government, 171; mistakes made, 172–77; objectives, 4–5, 35; political parties and, 175–76; public opinion on, 57, 143; tasks, 17–18; troop levels, 19. See also supreme commander for Allied powers
officers, Imperial. See Imperial forces, former officers
officers, NPR: appointments, 50, 69, 89–90, 100–101, 176; arrogant, 127–28; captains, 100, 103, 127–28, 129–31; from civilian backgrounds, 101, 102, 103; democratic commitment, 139–40; differences from Imperial officers, 105–7; experience, 81–82, 91, 105; former Imperial officers as, 105–7, 117–18, 130–31, 148, 150–51, 154, 176; General Group, 91–92, 96, 98; from National Rural Police, 82, 90; noncommissioned, 102, 127, 139, 178; purged officers ineligible, 29, 56–57, 61, 69, 100–101, 102, 103–4, 105–6; recruiting, 60–62, 65–66, 69, 103; relations with troops, 178; small-unit leaders, 99–100, 102, 103, 129–30; staff, 100; training, 99–100, 103, 104, 105, 129–30; uniforms, 91–92
Ōhashi, Takeo, 31, 47–48, 97, 100–101, 136, 168
Okazaki, Katsuo, 31, 84
Ōkuma, Shigenobu, 149
Ōsaka, 1, 4, 9, 14, 68, 161, 175–76
pacifism, 157
patriotism: American, 110; Japanese, 46, 112, 113, 119–20
peace treaty: hopes for, 7; negotiations, 12, 13; ratification, 166; unilateral, 13, 20, 162–63
Percy, Charles, xix
police forces: expansion, 25–27; municipal, 25, 28, 167, 168; rearmament through, 24–27, 45–47, 137–38, 172. See also National Police Reserve; National Rural Police
Potsdam Declaration, 38, 56, 146
Progressive Party (Kaishintō), 138, 162
protests, 14–15, 166–69
public opinion: on disarmament and rearmament, 29, 52–53, 139, 140–43, 165; on NPR, 141, 173; on occupation, 57, 143; polls, 140–43
Public Safety Division, 31, 60
Pulliam, Howard E., 31, 60, 61, 62, 63, 66, 68–69, 70
purge: benefits, 57; exceptions, 62–63, 65, 100–101; order for, 35, 56; people included, 5, 57, 59–60; supporters, 148
purged officers: ineligibility for NPR, 29, 56–57, 61, 69, 100–101, 102, 103–4, 105–6; number of, 148; removals from purge lists, 104–6, 130–31, 146–47, 148, 154. See also Imperial forces, former officers; militarists
radicals, 3–4. See also communism
Ratcliff, Clifton E., 30, 31, 75–76, 80, 81
rearmament: constitutional change needed, 165; denial, 132–33, 173; inoffensive, 181; legality, 10, 27, 32, 46, 172; MacArthur’s order, 10, 25–26, 55; mistakes made, 172–77; of NPR, 27, 43, 101, 132–33, 135; pace of, 27, 179–80; through police forces, 24–27, 45–47, 137–38, 172; public discussions, 135–39, 140; public opinion on, 29, 139, 140–43; Socialist opposition, 52, 132, 136, 137, 138, 140, 166, 173–74; supporters, 54, 152, 153, 157; through police forces, 24–27, 45–47, 137–38, 172; U.S. pressure, 140, 144, 152; women’s opposition, 52–53, 142, 143, 165; Yoshida on, 52–53, 136–38, 141–42, 143–45, 163. See also weapons
Republic of Korea (ROK) Headquarters, 21–22
rice, 3–4, 159. See also agriculture; food supply system
Ridgway, Matthew B., 78, 104
rightist organizations, 148–50, 151–54, 155–57. See also militarists
Roberts, William L., 107
Robertson, Frank, 111
Russia. See Soviet Union
SACB. See Subversive Activities Control Board
safes, 94–95
Saitō, Noboru, 68, 69, 86
Sakhalin, 82–83, 136
samurai, 111–13, 131. See also bushidō
Sauer, Colonel, 99
SCAP. See supreme commander for Allied powers
seishin kyōiku (military spirit), 109–14, 119–20
self-defense, right of, 33, 39–40, 41, 42, 136–37, 138
self-defense forces, 40, 53, 139, 173. See also Japan Self-Defense Forces
self-sacrifice, 118–19
seppuku, 130, 158
Shellenberger, Colonel, 91–92
Shepard, Whitfield P.: at CASA headquarters, 75–77; as chief, Civil Affairs Section, xviii, 21; interpreter, 60–61, 85, 86; Kowalski and, 21, 22–23, 47, 52; MacArthur and, 75; Masuhara and, 84–85, 86, 88, 104, 125, 126; National Police Reserve and, 23, 28–31, 60–61, 63–65, 66, 67, 73; personality, 75; Yoshida and, 45, 48
Shidehara, Kijurō, Baron, 36–37, 39, 165
Shiga, Yōshio, 4, 14
Shimbun Yoron Chōsa Renmei, 142, 143
Shintō, 112
Socialist Party (Nihon Shakaitō): American view of, 175–76; criticism of NPR, 133–34; criticism of positions, 174; Diet members, 31, 43, 133–34, 169; end of occupation and, 162; left and right wings, 162, 166; opposition to rearmament, 52, 132, 136, 137, 138, 140, 166, 173–74; on peace treaty negotiations, 13; Yoshida and, 174
soldiers. See heitai; yobitai
South Korea, 20, 107–8, 127. See also Korean War
S
oviet Union: Cold War, 11, 12, 146, 162; Japanese peace treaty and, 12, 13, 164; Japanese rearmament and, 53; military forces in Far East Asia, 136; representatives in Japan, 16–17; Sakhalin, 82–83, 136; total diplomacy against, 12, 13, 16–17, 20
special vehicles, tanks as, 81, 94, 173
spirit. See seishin kyōiku
State Department, U.S., 35, 162
State-War-Navy Coordination Committee (SWNCC), 34–35, 37
Stevens, Kenneth, 79–81
student protests, 14–15, 167, 169
Subversive Activities Control Board (SACB), xix–xx
Subversive Acts Prevention Bill, 166, 169
supreme commander for Allied powers (SCAP): anticommunist campaign, 14–16, 20; authority, 32; Initial Postsurrender Policy for Japan, 35, 56–57; objectives, 4–5. See also General Headquarters; MacArthur, Douglas; occupation
Suzuki (chief of police), 68–69
SWNCC. See State-War-Navy Coordination Committee
Takayanagi, Kenzō, 37
tanks, 81, 94, 134, 135, 136, 153, 173
tennō. See emperor
Thoulton, Colonel, 100
“Three Human Bombs” story, 118–19
Tōhoku University, 14
Tōjō, Hideki, 62, 63, 156, 157
Tōkyō Maritime Training School, 30–31
Tōkyō Metropolitan Police, 25, 167 total diplomacy, 12, 13, 16–17, 20 training: Advisory Group role, 99; criticism of, 153; of NPR officers, 99–100, 103, 104, 105, 129–30; of NPR recruits, 79, 83, 93, 98, 99–100, 101, 104, 106–7, 129–30; of U.S. Army, 17, 18
Truman, Harry S, 11, 13, 78, 147
Truman Doctrine, 11
Tsuji, Masanobu, 155–56, 157
uniforms, 91–92, 125–27
United Nations, 12–13, 46
United States: ambassadors to Japan, 50, 158; Asian involvement, 7, 8–9, 19–20; bases in Japan, 41–42, 166, 181; civilian control of military, 89, 179; economic power, 19–20; foreign policy in Cold War, 11, 12, 13, 16–17, 20; military cooperation with Japan, 85, 93; military officer appointments and promotions, 89, 176; military readiness, 19–20, 153–54; patriotism, 110; peace treaty with Japan, 13, 20, 162–63; presidential power, 118; security pact with Japan, 163, 180–81; Truman Doctrine, 11. See also occupation
U.S. Army: 1st Cavalry Division, 9; 7th Cavalry Regiment, 30–31; 7th Infantry Division, 9, 82, 83; 24th Infantry Division, 8, 9; 25th Infantry Division, 9; cadre system, 82; divisions in Japan, 9, 17–18, 19; Eighth Army, 8, 99–100; Kowalski’s career, xv–xix; organization, 93; training in Japan, 17, 18. See also Korean War
An Inoffensive Rearmament Page 27
