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Harcourt-Smith, W. E. H. 2007. The origins of bipedal locomotion. In Handbook of Paleoanthropology, Volume 3. W. Henke and I. Tattersall, eds. Heidelberg and New York: Springer, 1483–1518.
Harrison, T. 2010. Apes among the tangled branches of human origins. Science 327: 532–534.
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Tattersall, I. 2009. The Fossil Trail: How We Know What We Think We Know about Human Evolution. 2nd ed. New York: Oxford University Press.
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Ward, C. V., M. G. Leakey, A. Walker. 2001. Morphology of Australopithecus anamensis from Kanapoi and Allia Bay, Kenya. Jour. Hum. Evol. 41: 255–368.
White, T. D., G. WoldeGabriel, B. Asfaw, S. Ambrose, Y. Bayene, R. L. Bernor, J.-R. Boisserie, and numerous others. 2006. Assa Issie, Aramis and the origin of Australopithecus. Nature 440: 883–889.
White, T. D. and numerous others. 2009. Special Issue on Ardipithecus ramidus. Science 326: 5–106.
Zollikofer, C. P. E., M. S. Ponce de León, D. E. Lieberman, F. Guy, D. Pilbeam, A. Likius, H. T. Mackaye, P. Vignaud, M. Brunet. 2005. Virtual cranial reconstruction of Sahelanthropus tchadensis. Nature 434: 755–759.
CHAPTER 2: THE RISE OF THE BIPEDAL APES
The classic description of the early Hadar hominid collections is found in Johanson et al. (1982), and the Hadar Australopithecus afarensis crania and other more recently collected specimens are documented by Kimbel et al. (2004). A captivating general account of the discovery and initial analysis of the A. afarensis fossils is by Johanson and Edey (1982). It is still in print. See Aronson et al. (2008) for an overview of Hadar environments. The “hyper-bipedal” interpretation of A. afarensis locomotion is summarized by Lovejoy (1988); the classic reinterpretation emphasizing arboreal features is by Stern and Susman (1983), and limb proportions were analyzed by Jungers (1982). Rak (1991) reconsidered Lucy’s pelvic anatomy, and a recent overview of A. afarensis locomotion is provided by Ward (2002). For dental descriptions of modern hominoids see Aiello and Dean (1990), and of A. afarensis see Johanson and White (1979). A recent analysis of dental microwear in the latter is provided by Ungar (2004). For an account of the A. L. 333 locality, see Behrensmeyer (2008). An overall description of the Laetoli sites is found in Leakey and Harris (1987), and the most recent analysis of the footprints is by Raichlen et al. (2010). Australopithecus afarensis was named by Johanson et al. (1978). The original account of the Dikika child was by Alemseged et al. (2006), and it is well illustrated in Sloan (2006). The cut-marked bones from Dikika were published by McPherron et al. (2010), and the Woranso-Mille skeleton by Haile-Selassie et al. (2010). The Bouri hominid was named by Asfaw et al. (1999), and the cut-marked bones from the same deposits were published by deHeinzelin et al. (1999). The Gona stone tools were announced by Semaw (2000), and the cut-marked bones from this area by Dominguez-Rodrigo (2005). The Kanzi research was reported by Schick et al. (1999).
Aiello, L., C. Dean. 1990. An Introduction to Human Evolutionary Anatomy. London and San Diego: Academic Press.
Alemseged, Z., F. Spoor, W. H. Kimbel, R. Bone, D. Geraads, D. Reed, J. G. Wynn. A juvenile early hominid skeleton from Dikika, Ethiopia. Nature 443: 296–301.
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Asfaw, B., T. White, O. Lovejoy, B. Latimer, S. Simpson and G. Suwa. 1999. Australopithecus garhi: A new species of early hominin from Ethiopia. Science 284: 629–635.
Behrensmeyer, A. K. 2008. Paleoenvironmental context of the Pliocene A.L. 333 “First Family” hominin locality, Hadar Formation, Ethiopia. Geol. Soc. Amer. Spec. Pap. 446: 203–235.
deHeinzelin, J., J. D. Clark, T. White, W. Hart, P. Renne, G. WoldeGabriel, Y. Beyene, E. Vrba. 1999. Environment and Behavior of 2.5-million-year-old Bouri hominids. Science 284: 625–629.
Dominguez-Rodrigo, M., T. R. Pickering, S. Semaw, M. J. Rogers. 2005. Cutmarked bones from Pliocene archaeological sites at Gona, Ethiopia: Implications for the function of the world’s earliest stone tools. Jour. Hum. Evol. 48: 109–121.
Haile-Selassie, Y, B. M. Latimer, M. Alene, A. L. Deino, L. Gibert, S. M. Melillo, B. Z. Saylor, G. R. Scott, and C. O. Lovejoy. 2010. An early Australopithecus afarensis postcranium from Woranso-Mille, Ethiopia. Proc. Nat. Acad. Sci. USA 107: 12121–12126.
Johanson, D. C., M. Edey. 1982: Lucy: The Beginnings of Humankind. New York: Warner Books.
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Johanson, D. C., T. D. White, Y. Coppens. 1978. A new species of the genus Australopithecus (Primates: Hominidae) from the Pliocene of eastern Africa. Kirtlandia 28: 1–14.
Johanson, D. C., et al. 1982. Special Issue: Pliocene hominid fossils from Hadar, Ethiopia. Amer. Jour. Phys. Anthropol. 57: 373–724.
Jungers, W. L. Lucy’s limbs: Skeletal allometry and locomotion in Australopithecus afarensis. Nature 297: 676–678.
Kimbel, W. H., Y. Rak, D. C. Johanson. 2004. The Skull of Australopithecus afarensis. Oxford and New York: Oxford University Press.
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Lovejoy, C. O. 1988. Evolution of human walking. Scientific American 259: 118–125.
McPherron, S., Z. Alemseged, C. W. Marean, J. G. Wynne, D. Reed, D. Geraads, R. Bobe, H. A. Béarat. 2010. Evidence for stone-tool-assisted consumption of animal tissues before 3.39 million years ago at Dikika, Ethiopia. Nature 466: 857–860.
Raichlen, D. A., A. D. Gordon, W. E. H. Harcourt-Smith, A. D. Foster, W. R. Haas. 2010. Laetoli footprints preserve earliest direct evidence of humanlike bipedal biomechanics. PLoS One 5 (3): e9769.
Rak, Y. 1991. Lucy’s pelvic a
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Schick, K., N. Toth, G. Garufi, E. S. Savage-Rumbaugh, D. Rumbaugh, R. Sevcik. 1999. Continuing investigations into the stone tool-making and tool-using capabilities of a bonobo (Pan paniscus). Jour. Archaeol. Sci. 26: 821–832.
Semaw, S. 2000. The world’s earliest stone artifacts from Gona, Ethiopia: Their implications for understanding stone technology and patterns of human evolution between 2.6–1.5 million years ago. Jour. Archaeol. Sci. 27: 1197– 1214.
Stern, J. T., R. L. Susman. 1983. The locomotor anatomy of Australopithecus afarensis. Amer. Jour. Phys. Anthropol. 60: 279–317.
Ungar, P. 2004. Dental topography and diets of Australopithecus afarensis and early Homo. Jour. Hum. Evol. 46: 605–622.
Ward, C. V. 2002. Interpreting the posture and locomotion of Australopithecus afarensis: Where do we stand? Yrbk Phys. Anthropol. 45: 185–215.
CHAPTER 3: EARLY HOMINID LIFESTYLES AND THE INTERIOR WORLD
The cooking hypothesis is most comprehensively presented by Wrangham (2009), and the tapeworm research is by Hoberg et al. (2001); possible hypervitaminosis A in a fossil hominid is reported by Walker et al. (1982); and scavenging and early hominid social organization are discussed by Hart and Sussman (2009). Leopard-kill stealing is suggested by Cavallo and Blumenschine (1989). Stable isotope research on South African australopiths is summarized by Sponheimer and Lee-Thorp (2007), and East African Paranthropus isotopic analyses were reported by Cerling et al. (2011). Chimpanzee scavenging frequency was reported by Watts (2008), and spear-hunting at Fongoli by Pruetz and Bertolani (2007). Stanford (1999) and Mitani and Watts (2001) provide overviews of chimpanzee hunting behaviors; and Gomes and Boesch (2009) discuss meat-sharing and sex among chimpanzees. Use and antiquity of stone anvils by chimpanzees is discussed by Mercader et al. (2007), and power scavenging in contributions to Stanford and Bunn (2001). Calvin (1996) provides an accessible account of throwing and associated neural mechanisms. Dart quotation is from Dart (1953). For an overview and bibliography of cognitive issues see Tattersall (2011); and for mirror self-recognition see Gallup (1970). Seyfarth and Cheney (2000; quote from p. 902) reported cognitive results on monkeys; Povinelli observations and quotes come from Povinelli (2004: 33, 34).
Calvin, W. H. 1996. How Brains Think: Evolving Intelligence, Then and Now. New York: Basic Books.
Cavallo, J. A., R. J. Blumenschine. 1989. Tree-stored leopard kills: expanding the hominid scavenging niche. Jour. Hum. Evol. 18: 393–400.
Cerling, T. E., E. Mbua, F. M. Kirera, F. K. Manthi, F. E. Grine, M. G. Leakey, M. Sponheimer, K. T. Uno. 2011. Diet of Paranthropus boisei in the early Pleistocene of East Africa. Proc. Nat Acad. Sci. USA 108: 9337–9341.
Dart, R. A. 1953. The predatory transition from ape to man. Intl Anthopol. Ling. Rev. 1: 201–217.
Gallup, G. G. 1970. Chimpanzees: Self-recognition. Science 167: 86–87.
Gomes, C. M., C. Boesch. 2009. Wild chimpanzees exchange meat for sex on a long-term basis. PLoS One 4: e5116.
Hart, D., R. W. Sussman. 2009. Man the Hunted: Primates, Predators, and Human Evolution. Expanded edition. Boulder, CO: Westview Press.
Hoberg, E. P., N. L. Alkire, A. de Queiroz, A. Jones. 2001. Out of Africa: Origins of the Taenia tapeworms. Proc. Roy. Soc. Lond. B. 268: 781–787.
Mercader, J., H. Barton, J. Gillespie, J. Harris, S. Kuhn, R. Tyler, and C. Boesch. 2007. 4,300-year-old chimpanzee sites and the origins of percussive stone technology. Proc. Nat. Acad. Sci. USA 104: 3043–3048.
Mitani, J. C., D. P. Watts. Why do chimpanzees hunt and share meat? Anim. Behav. 61: 915–924.
Povinelli, D. J. 2004. Behind the ape’s appearance: Escaping anthropocentrism in the study of other minds. Daedalus 133 (1): 29–41.
Pruetz, J. D., P. Bertolani. Savanna chimpanzees, Pan troglodytes verus, hunt with tools. Curr. Biol. 17: 412–417.
Seyfarth, R. M., Cheney, D. L. 2000. Social awareness in monkeys. Amer. Zool. 40: 902–909.
Sponheimer, M., J. Lee-Thorp. 2007. Hominin paleodiets: The contribution of stable isotopes. In W. Henke and I. Tattersall (eds,), Handbook of Paleoanthropology. Heidelberg: Springer, 555–585.
Stanford, C. B. 1999. The Hunting Apes: Meat-eating and the Origins of Human Behavior. Princeton: Princeton University Press.
Stanford, C. B. H. Bunn. 2001. Meat-eating and Human Evolution. New York: Oxford University Press.
Tattersall, I. 2011. Origin of the human sense of self. In W. van Huyssteen and E. B. Wiebe (eds.), In Search of Self. Chicago: Wm. B. Eerdmans, 33–49.
Walker, A. C., M. R. Zimmerman, R. E. F. Leakey. 1982. A possible case of hypervitaminosis A in Homo erectus. Nature 296: 248–250.
Watts, D. 2008. Scavenging by chimpanzees at Ngogo and the relevance of chimpanzee scavenging to early hominid behavioral ecology. Jour. Hum. Evol. 54: 125–133.
Wrangham, R. 2009. Catching Fire: How Cooking Made Us Human. New York: Basic Books.
CHAPTER 4: AUSTRALOPITH VARIETY
For the latest dating of the South African australopith sites see Herries et al. (2009); South African australopith morphologies are reviewed in various contributions in Grine (1988). The most recent account of the Little Foot skeleton is by Clarke (2008). Australopithecus sediba was described by Berger et al. (2010). For dental microwear studies see Scott et al. (2005) and Ungar et al. (2008), and for a review and analysis of stable carbon isotope results see Sponheimer and Lee-Thorp (2007). For an overview of South African Early Stone Age tools, see Kuman (2003), and for the manipulatory abilities of Swartkrans hominids, see Susman (1994). The classic account of the robust “Zinjanthropus” from Olduvai Gorge is by Tobias (1967); Homo habilis was named by L. Leakey, Tobias, and Napier (1964); and the Ethiopian Omo Basin hominids were summarized by Howell (1978). Wood (1991) gives an account of the East Turkana hominids. The Black Skull was described by Walker et al. (1986), and the Konso skull by Suwa et al. (1997). Wood and Collard (1999) reconsidered the allocation to genera of early hominids, and M. G. Leakey et al. (2001) described Kenyanthropus.
Berger, L. R., D. J. de Ruiter, S. E. Churchill, P. Schmid, K. J. Carlson, P. H. G. M. Dirks, J. M. Kibii. 2010. Nature 328: 195–204.
Clarke, R. J. 2008. Latest information on Sterkfontein’s Australopithecus skeleton and a new look at Australopithecus. S. Afr. Jour. Sci. 104: 443–449.
Grine, F. E. (ed). 1988. Evolutionary History of the “Robust” Australopithecines. Hawthorne, NY: Aldine de Gruyter.
Herries, A. I. R., D. Curnoe, J. W. Adams. 2009. A multi-disciplinary seriation of early Homo and Paranthropus bearing palaeocaves in southern Africa. Quat. Int. 202: 14–28.
Howell, F. C. 1978. Hominidae. In V. J. Maglio and H. B. S. Cooke (eds.). Evolution of African Mammals. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 154–248.
Kuman, K. 2003. Site formation in the early South African Stone Age sites and its influence on the archaeological record. S. Afr. Jour. Sci. 99: 251–254.
Leakey, L. S. B., P. V. Tobias, J. R. Napier. 1964. A new species of genus Homo from Olduvai Gorge. Nature 202: 7–9.
Leakey, M. G., F. Spoor, F. H. Brown, P. N. Gathogo, L. N. Leakey, I. McDougall. 2001. New hominin genus from eastern Africa shows diverse middle Pliocene lineages. Nature 410: 433–440.
Scott, R. S., P. S. Ungar, T. S. Bergstrom, C. A. Brown, F. E. Grine, M. F. Teaford, A. Walker. 2005. Dental microwear texture analysis shows within-species diet variability in fossil hominins. Nature 436: 693–695.
Sloan, C. P. 2006. The origin of childhood. National Geographic 210 (5): 148–159.
Susman, R. L. 1994. Fossil evidence for early hominid tool use. Science 265: 1570–1573.
Suwa, G., B. Asfaw, Y. Beyene, T. D. White, S. Katoh, S. Nagaoka, H. Nakaya, K. Uzawa, P. Renne, G. WoldeGabriel. 1997. The first skull of Australopithecus boisei. Nature 389: 489–446.
Tobias, P. V. 1967. Olduvai Gorge, Vol. 2. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
Ungar, P., F. E. Grine, M. F. Teaford. 2008.
Dental microwear and diet of the Plio-Pleistocene hominin Paranthropus boisei. PLoS One 3: e2044.
Walker, A. C., R. E. F. Leakey, J. M. Harris, F. H. Brown. 1986. 2.5-Myr Australopithecus boisei from west of Lake Turkana, Kenya. Nature 322: 517–522.
Wood, B. 1991. Koobi Fora Research Project, Vol. 4. Oxford: Clarendon Press.
Wood, B., M. Collard. The human genus. Science 284: 65–71.
CHAPTER 5: STRIDING OUT
The “Man the Toolmaker” concept was most widely popularized by Kenneth Oakley (1949 and many subsequent editions). Louis Leakey et al. (1964) named Homo habilis, and the similarities of its type material to australopiths was noted by, among others, Robinson (1965) and Pilbeam and Simons (1965). KNM-ER 1470 was first described (simply as a member of Homo) in 1973 by R. E. F. Leakey, who by 1976 was calling it Homo habilis. It was allocated to Homo rudolfensis by Alexeev (1986), and transferred again to Kenyanthropus by M. G. Leakey et al. (2001). See Tattersall (2009) for the history of other hominids allocated to Homo habilis, Homo rudolfensis, and “early Homo,” and see Schwartz and Tattersall (2005) for morphological discussion of these fossils. Dobzhansky’s views on variability among early hominids were first published in 1944, and May’s influential Cold Spring Harbor paper in 1950. For a discussion of the Evolutionary Synthesis and its sequelae in evolutionary biology, see Eldredge (1985); specifically in paleoanthropology, see Tattersall (2009).
Wood and Collard (1999) reappraised the content of the genus Homo. Dubois described Pithecanthropus erectus most fully in 1894; see Schwartz and Tattersall (2005) and Tattersall (2007) for a full discussion of the Homo erectus/ Homo ergaster issue. KNM-WT 15000 was described and analyzed most comprehensively in the various contributions to Walker and Leakey (1993). MacLarnon and Hewitt (1999) reviewed the wider significance of the vertebral canal in breathing control. Broca’s area has been recently reappraised in some detail by Amunts et al. (2010). Growth and life history features of the Turkana Boy were reappraised by Dean et al. (2001), Dean and Smith (2009), and Graves et al. (2010), and the East Turkana footprints were reported by Bennett et al. (2009). The significance of brain size in a juvenile Homo erectus was analyzed by Coqueugniot et al. (2004). Goldschmidt (1940) published the notion of the “hopeful monster,” and Peichel et al. (2001) presented results on gene regulation in sticklebacks. Gene expression in tissues of chimpanzees and humans was reported by Khaitovich et al. (2005).
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