The first report of Neanderthal mtDNA was by Krings et al. (1997), and a recent report and review is by Briggs et al. (2009). The draft Neanderthal genome was reported by Green et al. (2010), and the Denisova genome by Reich et al. (2010). See Cohen (2010) for a short account of modern interspecific hybrids, Johnson et al. (2006) for lion and tiger ancestry, and Jolly (2001) for the hamadryas and gelada hybrid zone and implications. For a variety of views on the Abrigo do Lagar Velho skeleton see Zilhao and Trinkaus (2002), and for an account of the Petera cu Oase skull see Trinkaus et al. (2003).
Consult Smith et al. (2010) for the most recent report and synthesis of Neanderthal dental development, Ponce de Leon and Zollikofer (2001) for Neanderthal cranial development, and Gunz et al. (2010) for Neanderthal vs. modern brain development trajectories. For Neanderthal hair and skin color, refer to Lalueza-Fox et al. (2007). The introgression of the microcephalin gene variant into Homo sapiens from an archaic hominid lineage was suggested by Evans et al. (2006). See Stiner and Kuhn (1992) for a comparison of Neanderthal subsistence at Italian sites. See Richards and Trinkaus (2009) for a summary of nitrogen-isotope studies, Bocherens et al. (2005) for the St.Césaire nitrogen isotope data and interpretations, and Henry et al. (2010) for the Shanidar and Spy plant microfossil analyses. Lalueza-Fox et al. (2010) present mtDNA data from El Sidrón, while Vallverdú et al. report on site formation and population sizes at Abric Romaní. Quote is from Zimmer (2010). The human bone tool from La Quina was described by Verna and D’Errico (2010).
Bocherens, H. D. G. Drucker, D. Billiou, M. Patou-Mathis, B. Vandermeersch. 2005. Isotopic evidence for diet and subsistence pattern of the Saint-Césaire I Neanderthal: review and use of a multi-source mixing model. Jour. Hum. Evol. 49: 71–87.
Briggs, A. W., J. M. Good, R. E. Green, J. Krause, T. Maricic, U. Stenzel, C. Lalueza-Fox and numerous others. 2009. Targeted retrieval and analysis of five Neanderthal mtDNA genomes. Science 325: 318–321.
Cohen, J. 2010. Almost Chimpanzee: Searching for What Makes us Human in Rainforests, Labs, Sanctuaries and Zoos. New York: Times Books.
Dean, D., J.-J. Hublin, R. Holloway, R. Ziegler. 1998. On the phylogenetic position of the pre-Neandertal specimen from Reilingen, Germany. Jour. Hum. Evol. 34: 485–508.
Evans, P. D., M. Mekel-Bobrov, E. J. Vallender, R. R. Hudson, B. T. Lahn. 2006. Evidence that the adaptive allele of the brain size gene microcephalin introgressed into Homo sapiens from an archaic Homo lineage. Proc. Nat. Acad. Sci. USA 103: 18178–18183.
Green, R. E., J. Krause, A. W. Briggs, T. Maricic, U. Stenzel, M. Kirchner, N. Patterson and 49 others. 2010. A draft sequence of the Neanderthal genome. Science 328: 710–722.
Gunz, P., S. Neubauer, B. Maureille, J.-J. Hublin. 2010. Brain development after birth differs between Neanderthals and modern humans. Curr. Biol. 20 (21): R921–R922.
Henry, A. G., A. S. Brooks, D. R. Piperno. 2010. Microfossils in calculus demonstrate consumption of plants and cooked foods in Neanderthal diets (Shanidar III, Iraq; Spy I and II, Belgium). Proc. Nat. Acad. Sci. USA, doi/10.1073/ pnas.101686108.
Johnson, W. E., E. Eizirik, J. Pecon-Slattery, W. J. Murphy, A. Antunes, E. Teeling, S. J. O’Brien. 2006. The late Miocene radiation of modern Felidae: A genetic assessment. Science 311: 73–77.
Jolly, C. J. 2001. A proper study for mankind: Analogies from the papionin monkeys and their implications for human evolution. Yrbk Phys. Anthropol. 44: 177–204.
Krause J., Orlando L., Serre D., Viola B., Prüfer K., Richards M. P., Hublin J. J., Hänni C., Derevianko A. P., Pääbo S. 2007. Neanderthals in central Asia and Siberia. Nature 449: 1–3.
Lalueza-Fox, C., A. Rosas, A. Estalrrich, E. Gigli, P. F. Campos, A. Garcia-Tabernero, S. Garcia-Vargas and 9 others. 2010. Genetic evidence for patrilocal mating behavior among Neandertal groups. Proc. Nat. Acad. Sci. USA, doi/10.1073/pnas.1011533108.
Lalueza-Fox, C., H. Rompler, D. Caramelli, C. Staubert, G. Catalano, D. Hughes, N. Rohland and 10 others. 2007. A melanocortin 1 receptor allele suggests varying pigmentation among Neanderthals. Science 318: 1453–1455.
Patou-Mathis, M. 2006. Comportements de subsistance des Néandertaliens d’Europe. In B. Demarsin and M. Otte (eds.). Neanderthals in Europe. Liege, ERAUL, 117: 9–14.
Pearson, O. M., R. M. Cordero, A. M. Busby. 2006. How different were the Neanderthals’ habitual activities? A comparative analysis with diverse groups of recent humans. In K. Harvati and T. Harrison (eds.). Neanderthals Revisited: New Approaches and Perspectives. Berlin: Springer, 135–156.
Ponce de León, M. S. and C. P. E. Zollikofer. 2001. Neanderthal cranial ontogeny and its implications for late hominid diversity. Nature 412: 534–538.
Reich, D., R. E. Green, M. Kirchner, J. Krause, N. Patterson, E. Y. Durand, B. Viola and numerous others. 2010. Genetic history of an archaic hominin group from Denisova Cave in Siberia. Nature 468: 1053–1060.
Schulz, H.-P. 2000/2001. The lithic industry from layers IV-V, Susiluola Cave, Western Finland. Prehist. Europ. 16/17: 43–56.
Schwartz, J. H., I. Tattersall. 2002. The Human Fossil Record, Vol. 1: Terminology and Craniodental Morphology of Genus Homo (Europe). New York: Wiley-Liss.
Slimak, L, J. I. Svendsen, J. Mangerud, H. Plisson, H. P. Heggen, A Brugère, P. Y. Pavlov. 2011. Late Mousterian persistence near the Arctic Circle. Science 332: 841–845.
Stiner, M., S. Kuhn. 1992. Subsistence, technology, and adaptive variation in Middle Paleolithic Italy. Amer. Anthropol. 94: 306–339.
Tattersall, I., Schwartz, J. H. 2006. The distinctiveness and systematic context of Homo neanderthalensis. In K. Harvati and T. Harrison (eds.). Neanderthals Revisited: New Approaches and Perspectives. Berlin: Springer, 9–22.
Trinkaus, E., S. Milota, R. Rodrigo, G. Mircea, O. Moldovan. 2003. Early modern human remains from the Petera cu Oase, Romania. Jour. Hum. Evol. 45: 245–253.
Vallverdú, J., M. Vaquero, I. Cáceres, E. Allué, J. Rosell, P. Saladié, G. Chacón, A. Ollé, A. Canals, R. Sala, M. A. Courty, E. Carbonell. 2010. Sleeping Activity Area within the Site Structure of Archaic Human Groups: Evidence from Abric Romaní Level N Combustion Activity Areas. Curr. Anthropol. 51: 137–145.
Van Andel, T. H., W. Davies. 2003. Neanderthals and Modern Humans in the European Landscape during the Last Glaciation (McDonald Institute Monographs). Oxford, UK: Oxbow Books.
Verna, C., F. D’Errico. 2010. The earliest evidence for the use of human bone as a tool. Jour. Hum. Evol. 60: 145–147.
Zilhao, J., E. Trinkaus (eds.). 2002. Portrait of the artist as a child: The Gravettian human skeleton from the Abrigo do Lagar Velho and its Archeological Context. Trab. Arqueol. 22: 1–604.
Zimmer, C. 2010. Bones give peek into the lives of Neanderthals. New York Times, 20 December.
CHAPTER 11: ARCHAIC AND MODERN
For an excellent general account of the Mousterian, see Klein (2009). Soressi and D’Errico (2007) present an overview of putatively symbolic objects and materials in the Mousterian. Finlayson (2009) provides a fascinating perspective on Neanderthal populations and environments. For the presence of Neanderthals at Arcy, see Hublin et al. (1996), and for recent views on the Châtelperronian at Arcy and St.-Césaire, see Bar-Yosef and Bordes (2010) and Higham et al. (2010). Evidence for early and brief replacement of Neanderthals by moderns was presented by Pinhasi et al. (2011).
Bar-Yosef, O., J.-G. Bordes. 2010. Who were the makers of the Châtelperronian culture? Jour. Hum. Evol. 59: 586–593.
Finlayson, C. 2009. The Humans Who Went Extinct: Why Neanderthals Died Out and We Survived. Oxford, UK: Oxford University Press.
Higham, T., R. Jacobi, M. Julien, F. David, L. Basell, R. Wood, W. Davies, C. B. Ramsey. 2010. Chronology of the Grotte du Renne (France) and implications for the context of ornaments and human remains within the Châtelperronian. Proc. Nat. Acad. Sci. USA 107: 20234–20239.
Hublin, J.-J., F. Spoor, M. Braun, F. Zonneveld, and S. Condemi. 1996. A late Neanderthal associated with Upper Palaeolithic artefacts. Nature
381: 224–226.
Klein, R. 2009. The Human Career, 3rd ed. Chicago: University of Chicago Press.
Pinhasi, R., T. F. G. Higham, L. V. Golubova, V. B. Doronichev. 2011. Revised age of late Neanderthal occupation and the end of the Middle Paleolithic in the northern Caucasus. Proc Nat. Acad. Sci. USA 108: 8611–8616.
Soressi, M., F. D’Errico. 2007. Pigments, gravures, parures: Les comportements symboliques controversés des Néandertaliens. In B. Vandermeersch, B. Maureille (eds.). Les Néandertaliens: Biologie et Cultures. Paris: Editions du CTHS, 297–309.
CHAPTER 12: ENIGMATIC ARRIVAL
For the very earliest Homo sapiens fossils in Africa, see MacDougall et al. (2005), White et al. (2003) and Clark et al. (2003). For the Middle Stone Age see the review in Klein (2009), and for the Aterian and associated hominids see Balter (2011) and contributions in Garcea (2010) and Hublin and McPherron (2011). Drake et al. (2010) discuss the “green Sahara.” For dating of the Levantine sites see Bar-Yosef (1998) and Grün et al. (2005), and Coppa et al. (2005); for the Levantine hominids see Schwartz and Tattersall (2003, 2010).
Tishkoff et al. (2009) provide the most comprehensive recent discussion of African genetic diversity. Campbell and Tishkoff (2010) provide an overview and excellent bibliography. See also commentary in Gibbons (2009), and Scheinfeldt et al. (2010) for synthesis with linguistics and archaeology. For bottlenecking, see Jorde et al. (1998) and Harpending and Rogers (2000); specifically in connection with Mount Toba, see Ambrose (1998); further commentary on the Mount Toba scenario is by Ambrose (2003) and Gathorne-Hardy and Harcourt-Smith (2003). See DeSalle and Tattersall (2008) for molecular techniques and a detailed summary of the molecular evidence for human spread. Liu et al. (2010) describe the alleged ancient Homo sapiens jaw from China, and Pitulko et al. (2004) the earliest occupation north of the Arctic Circle.
Ambrose, S. H. 1998. Late Pleistocene human population bottlenecks, volcanic winter, and differentiation of modern humans. Jour. Hum. Evol. 34: 623–651.
Ambrose, S. H. 2003. Did the super-eruption of Toba cause a human population bottleneck? Reply to Gathorne-Hardy and Harcourt-Smith. Jour. Hum. Evol. 45: 231–237.
Balter, M. 2011. Was North Africa the launch pad for modern human migrations? Science 331: 20–23.
Bar-Yosef, Y. 1998. The chronology of the Middle Paleolithic of the Levant. In T. Akazawa, K. Aoki, O. Bar-Yosef (eds.). Neandertals and Modern Humans in Western Asia. New York: Plenum Press, 39–56.
Campbell, M., S. A. Tishkoff. 2010. The evolution of human genetic and phenotypic variation in Africa. Curr. Biol. 20: R166–R173.
Clark, J. D., Y. Beyene, G. WoldeGabriel, W. K. Hart, P. R. Renne, H. Gilbert, A. Defleur, G. Suwa, S. Katoh, K. R. Ludwig, J.-R. Boisserie, B. Asfaw, T. D. White. 2003. Stratigraphic, chronological and behavioural contexts of Pleistocene Homo sapiens from Middle Awash, Ethiopia. Nature 423: 747–752.
Coppa, A., R. Grün, C. Stringer, S. Eggins, R. Vargiu. 2005. Newly recognized Pleistocene human teeth from Tabn Cave, Israel. Jour. Hum. Evol. 49: 301–315.
DeSalle, R., I. Tattersall. 2008. Human Origins: What Bones and Genomes Tell Us about Ourselves. College Station, TX: Texas A&M University Press.
Drake, N. A., R. M. Blench, S. J. Armitage, C. S. Bristow, K. H. White. 2010. Ancient watercourses and biogeography of the Sahara explain the peopling of the desert. Proc. Nat. Acad. Sci. USA 108: 458–462.
Garcea, E. A. A. (ed.). 2010. South-Eastern Mediterranean Peoples between 130,000 and 10,000 Years Ago. Oxford, UK: Oxbow Books.
Gathorne-Hardy, F. J., W. E. H. Harcourt-Smith. 2003. The super-eruption of Toba, did it cause a human bottleneck? Jour. Hum. Evol. 45: 227–230.
Gibbons, A. 2009. Africans’ deep genetic roots reveal their evolutionary story. Science 324: 575.
Grün, R., C. Stringer, F. McDermott, R. Nathan, N. Porat, S. Robertson, L. Taylor, G. Mortimer, S. Eggins, M. McCulloch. 2005. U-series and ESR analyses of bones and teeth relating to the human burials from Skhl. Jour. Hum. Evol. 49: 316–334.
Harpending, H., A. R. Rogers. 2000. Genetic perspectives on human origins and differentiation. Ann. Rev. Genom. Hum. Genet. 1: 361–385.
Hublin, J. J., S. McPherron. 2011. Modern Origins: A North African Perspective. New York: Springer.
Klein, R. 2009. The Human Career, 3rd ed. Chicago: University of Chicago Press.
Liu, W., C.-Z. Jin, Y.-Q. Zhang, Y.-J. Cai, S. Zing, X.-J. Wu, H. Cheng and 6 others. 2010. Human remains from Zhirendong, South China, and modern human emergence in East Asia. Proc. Nat. Acad. Sci. USA 107: 19201– 19206.
McDougall, I., F. H. Brown, J. G. Fleagle. 2005. Stratigraphic placement and age of modern humans from Kibish, Ethiopia. Nature 433: 733–736.
Pitulko, V. V., P. A. Nikolsky, E. Y. Girya, A. E. Basilyan, V. E. Tumskoy, S. A. Koulakov, S. N. Astakhov, E. Y. Pavlova, M. A. Anisimov. 2004. The Yana RHS site: Humans in the Arctic before the Last Glacial Maximum. Science 303: 52–56.
Scheinfeldt, L. B., S. Soi, S. A. Tishkoff. 2010. Working toward a synthesis of archaeological, linguistic and genetic data for inferring African population history. Proc. Nat. Acad. Sci. USA 107 (Supp. 2): 8931–8938.
Schwartz, J. H., I. Tattersall. 2010. Fossil evidence for the origin of Homo sapiens. Yrbk. Phys. Anthropol. 53: 94–121.
Tishkoff, S. A., F. A. Reed, F. B. Friedlander, C. Ehret, A. Ranciaro. A. Froment, J. B. Hirbo and numerous others. 2009. The genetic structure and history of Africans and African Americans. Science 324: 1035–1044.
White, T. D., B. Asfaw, D. DeGusta, H. Gilbert, G. D. Richards, G. Suwa, F. C. Howell. 2003. Pleistocene Homo sapiens from Middle Awash, Ethiopia. Nature 423: 742–747.
CHAPTER 13: THE ORIGIN OF SYMBOLIC BEHAVIOR
The Skhl and Oued Djebbana beads were reported by Vanhaeren et al. (2006), the Skhl pigments were analyzed by D’Errico et al. (2010), and further bead evidence in the North African Aterian was reported by Bouzouggar et al. (2007) and d’Errico et al. (2009). The Blombos plaques were described by Henshilwood et al. (2002), and the beads from the site by Henshilwood et al. (2004). Marean et al. (2007) reported pigments and shellfishing at Pinnacle Point; heat treatment of silcrete there was described by Brown et al. (2009), and pressure-flaking at Blombos by Mourre et al. (2010). For background on the Klasies River Mouth sites, see Deacon and Deacon (1999). The Diepkloof ostrich eggshell containers are described by Texier et al. (2020), and the Enkapune Ya Muto beads by Ambrose (1998); see Mellars (2006) for a discussion of early human dispersal through Eurasia, and Kuhn et al. (2001) for shell beads from Lebanese and Turkish sites.
Ambrose, S. H. 1998. Chronology of the later Stone Age and food production in East Africa. Jour. Archaeol. Sci. 25: 377–392.
Bouzouggar, A., N. Barton, M. Vanhaeren, F. d’Errico, S. Colcutt, T. Higham, E. Hodge and 8 others. 2007. 82,000-year-old shell beads from North Africa and implications for the origins of modern human behavior. Proc. Nat. Acad. Sci. USA 104: 9964–9969.
Brown, K. S., C. W. Marean, A. I. R. Herries, Z. Jacobs, C. Tribolo, D. Braun, D. L. Roberts, M. C. Meyer, J. Bernatchez. 2009. Fire as an engineering tool of early modern humans. Science 325: 859–862.
Deacon, H., J. Deacon. 1999. Human beginnings in South Africa: Uncovering the Secrets of the Stone Age. Cape Town: David Philip.
d’Errico, F., M. Vanhaeren, N. Barton, A. Bouzouggar, H. Mienis, D. Richter, J.-J. Hublin, S. P. McPherron, P. Lozouet. 2009. Additional evidence on the use of personal ornaments in the Middle Paleolithic of North Africa. Proc. Nat. Acad. Sci. USA 106: 16051–16056.
d’Errico, F., H. Salomon, C. Vignaud, C. Stringer. 2010. Pigments from Middle Paleolithic leves of es-Skhl (Mount Carmel, Israel). Jour. Archaeol. Sci. 37: 3099–3110.
Henshilwood, C., F. d’Errico, M. Vanhaeren, K. van Niekerk, Z. Jacobs. 2004. Middle Stone Age shell beads from South Africa. Science 304: 404.
Henshilwood, C. S., F. d’Errico, R. Yates, Z. Jacobs, C. Tribolo, G. A. T. Duller, N. Mercier and 4 others. 2002. Emergence of modern human behavi
or: Middle Stone Age engravings from South Africa. Science 295: 1278–1280.
Kuhn, S., M. C. Stiner, D. S. Reese, E. Gulec. 2001. Ornaments of the earliest Upper Paleolithic: New Insights from the Levant. Proc. Nat. Acad. Sci. USA 98: 7641–7646.
Marean, C. W., M. Bar-Matthews, J. Bernatchez, E. Fisher, P. Goldberg, A. I. R. Herries, Z. Jacobs and 7 others. 2007. Early use of marine resources and pigment in South Africa during the Middle Pleistocene. Nature 449: 905–908.
Mellars, P. 2006. Going east: New genetic and archaeological perspectives on the modern human colonization of Eurasia. Science 313: 796–800.
Mourre, V., P. Villa, C. S. Henshilwood. 2010. Early use of pressure flaking on lithic artifacts at Blombos Cave, South Africa. Science 330: 659–662.
Texier P. J., G. Porraz, J. Parkington J.-P. Rigaud, C. Poggenpoel, C. Miller, C. Tribolo, C. Cartwright, A. Coudenneau, R. Klein, T. Steele, C. Verna. 2010. A Howiesons Poort tradition of engraving ostrich eggshell containers dated to 60,000 years ago at Diepkloof Rock Shelter, South Africa. Proc. Nat. Acad. Sci. USA. 107: 6180–6185.
Vanhaeren, M., F. d’Errico, C. Stringer, S. L. James, J. A. Todd, H. K. Mienis. 2006. Middle Paleolithic shell beads in Israel and Algeria. Science 312: 1785–1788.
CHAPTER 14: IN THE BEGINNING WAS THE WORD
For the implication of the FOXP2 gene in speech disorders, see Lai et al. (2001), and for its identification in Neanderthals see Krause et al. (2007). For a discussion of the larynx, facial proportions, and speech see P. Lieberman (2007) and D. E. Lieberman (2011). For amusing advocacy of theory of mind see Dunbar (2004), and for the role of language in symbolic thought see Tattersall (2008). Atkinson (2011) discusses the potential significance of phonemic diversity. For Nicaraguan sign language see Kegl et al. (1999), and for the case of Ildefonso see Schaller (1991). Jill Bolte Taylor (2006) describes the effects of her stroke on her language abilities. DeSalle and Tattersall (2011) provide an account of the functioning and long history of the human brain, and Geschwind (1966) discusses the putative significance of the angular gyrus. Coolidge and Wynn (2009) and Balter (2010) discuss working memory.
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