by David Alkek
He turned to his officers who had gathered around him. "Let us rest tonight, and tomorrow I will honor Achilles."
The next day, Alexander and his men gathered for a ceremony at the tomb. He stepped forward and poured sacred oil on it, as he prayed to the gods. “I give honor to Achilles and to all the Greeks who fought against Troy and all Asians. Help us, all ye gods of Olympus, in our fight against the enemy, bless our arms, and bolster our courage."
He then crowned the tomb with garlands. Turning to an officer, he handed him his helmet. Other officers helped him remove the rest of his armor and clothes. He stood naked before the tomb of Achilles, and after bowing in acknowledgement ran around it. After doing so he faced the tomb and exclaimed, "Happy Achilles to have had in life so faithful a friend, and after his death so famous a poet to celebrate him."
He made a sacred pledge, "I vow to you mighty and heroic Achilles, and to all the gods, that I will continue the struggle between Greece and Asia, which was begun at Troy. I pledge my honor, my fortune, and my blood to carry through this contest to a successful end." His officers and soldiers cheered, and also made pledges.
Soon afterward, Alexander was joined by the main force and marched south. He knew that the vast Persian Empire was composed of diverse peoples, cultures, and languages with no deep loyalty or affection for the Persian rulers. He counted on this and hoped that not only would these peoples not resist an invading army, but may even join it in throwing off their oppressors.
He was met by the first Persian contingent at the river Granicus. The Persian forces arranged themselves on the opposite side of the river, forcing the Greeks to come across the river to engage them. This was not a large army and was to be mainly an engagement of the cavalry of both sides.
Alexander pointed at the Persians' deployments to his generals. "Look how they have protected themselves behind the river banks. This shows that they choose to fight defensively, a cowardly move."
"Alexander," explained Parmenion, "these have been evasive tactics of the Asian armies for hundreds of years. The Greek historians have written of them."
"I have contempt for such faint-heartedness," Alexander snarled. "That impels me even more to find the Persians' strongest point and to attack it. Prepare your men. I will lead the attack in the center."
Unlike the traditional Greek generals who fought on foot and were indistinguishable alongside their hoplite soldiers, Alexander dressed in ostentatious armor and helmet. He led his men with infectious courage and plunged into the melee, relishing the thrill of battle.
The generals were too familiar with the young king's apparently inexhaustible energy, especially when it came to the prospect of facing an enemy in battle. The planning of war and battles energized Alexander. His personality fed on it, as if he drank the blood that was spilled on the battlefield. War became an uncontrollable passion, the sound and sight of battle and intoxication. He seemed to forget sometimes that he was the commanding general, and threw himself into the thickest of the fray. Time and again, his soldiers saved him and pleaded with him to go to the rear for fear that they would lose him.
Alexander led his cavalry across the river and attacked the Persians behind their embankment, attempting to push them to the open ground. The Persians resisted, barring their crossing and hurling them back into the river.
During the cavalry attack, Alexander plunged into the enemy, thrusting and hacking. He likened himself to a modern Achilles, who measured his worth by the number of enemy that he personally speared, unhorsed, or slashed.
While he was fighting with a cavalryman on his left, another Persian maneuvered toward Alexander from behind his right side. The clash of swords and spears against shields, and the cries of dying men and horses prevented Alexander from hearing a shout of warning. The enemy horseman raised his sword to strike Alexander. Cleitus had seen the threat, tried to warn Alexander, who did not hear, and sped his horse toward him. He plunged between the enemy and Alexander, and with his sword severed the raised arm of the Persian. Alexander turned in time to realize that his life had been threatened and was saved by the action of Cleitus.
Alexander's gamble of attacking the Persian strength proved exactly correct. The Persian main force broke and fled, discarding their arms. The Greek mercenary infantry, who were in the second line, were rooted in their place by the unexpected catastrophe. They stood their ground and fought like the disciplined soldiers that they were.
Alexander turned his cavalry flank to attack the mercenaries. He exhorted his men, "Have no mercy for those Greeks, who fight for the enemy. We must teach them that they must not fight against fellow Greeks and Macedonians."
With that, his men surrounded and massacred the mercenaries. Perhaps 15 to 18,000 Greeks were killed, more than had fallen to the Persians in their two invasions of Greece.
Alexander led his men in riding down and slaughtering the retreating Persians, as many as twenty thousand perishing under their swords and spears. The Macedonians destroyed the Persian army outright.
This was a new type of warfare that Alexander had inherited from his father. War did not merely mean the defeat of the enemy and signing of a treaty, but the complete annihilation of opposing forces and humiliation of those who would dare to field further opposition.
He spared two thousand of the mercenaries and sent them back home in chains as a warning to other Greeks who would oppose him. To impress upon the Greeks at home of his first victory, he sent three hundred suits of Persian armor to Athens. With them was the message, "Alexander, the son of Philip, and the Greeks, except the Spartans, have won this spoil from the barbarians of Asia." This one statement expressed not only his contempt for the Persians, but his greater contempt for the Spartans, and his conviction that all Greeks were united in furthering the Greek cause in Asia.
Phidias was appalled by the wanton slaughter of fellow Greeks. The next day he watched as officers gave orders and bodies were stripped and heaped into piles and burned. He saw Alexander astride the magnificent black Bucephalus, in his clean and resplendent armor, overseeing the collection of booty from the Persians. Always clean-shaven, he introduced the custom of shaving into the world that he conquered. Phidias had heard him say that the beard offered the enemy a handy thing to grasp.
Alexander saw Phidias watching the stripping of corpses and piling them for the pyres and walked over to him. "Master Phidias, I would like you to come to my tent tonight for a quiet dinner and conversation."
"I would be delighted, Sire."
"Good. Then also invite Gogras, Pharacrates, and Callisthenes. I would like to see what the scientists and historians have to say about the campaign so far."
That evening Alexander and his philosophers discussed things until the late hours. Alexander had been a good student, but was consumed by responsibilities too early to develop a mature mind. As with many men occupied by action and ambition, he was sorry that he could not also be a deep thinker. He had a passion for learning, that would always be with him and delighted in reading when he had time, but Alexander's world was one of action and not contemplation. He attempted to intersperse learning and learned discussion between marches and battles. It was a joy to him, after a day of marching or fighting to sit up with scholars for half of the night.
The philosophers were welcomed into Alexander's tent. It was large, as befitted the King, but not luxurious. The men sat at a table and were served fruits and vegetables from the countryside and a light stew. The wine was watered down.
Alexander did not gorge himself with heavy deals like some of his generals, even after a hard march for battle. He was not averse to drinking heavily, although Aristotle and others had warned him to drink moderately. This night was to be one of serious discussion, so he remained sober.
"What do you think of the Persians so far," Alexander asked? He had told these philosophers to refer to him by his name while they were in private. He respected them and wanted to relate as a fellow scholar.
"They ar
e very clever people with an advanced civilization," said Gorgas. "I have talked with their mathematicians and astronomers. They are excellent builders and have a vast network of roads that connect all parts of the empire."
"It is indeed a vast empire," said Pharacrates, "composed of diverse peoples, who dwell in cities, mountains, valleys, and deserts. It is not like Greece that is broken up into small kingdoms by many mountains."
"You are my official historian, aren't you Callisthenes? Your uncle Aristotle instructed you to keep a record. Have my generals given you an accounting of the number of enemy dead, and how much armor and horses and treasure we have captured?"
"Yes, they have, and I am writing good account of your campaign so far. I have observed how you have attacked the enemy with such courage, unafraid of possible injury to yourself. I was told how Cleitus saved your life at the Granicus. Don’t you have a fear that you might be injured or killed, and therefore our army will fail?"
"I live a charmed life," replied Alexander. "Know you not that I am the son of Zeus. He will watch over and protect me from the enemy's arrows and swords. I believe that my courage is an example to all our soldiers.”
"But what if you are unhorsed or lose contact with your generals," asked Callisthenes?
"My generals know what to do, for we discuss our strategy before the battle. But as any battle progresses, it may take an unpredictable course. The generals who serve me also served my father, and they know how our phalanxes fight and how to conduct a battle. They can make their own decisions in the midst of it without me."
"I see," said Callisthenes.
"I would like to say something about the Persians, Alexander."
"What is that, Phidias?"
"Unlike the Greeks, the Persians have a very strong and centralized command at the top and very little initiative or leadership ability below that. Their general or the King if he is present at the battle stays in the rear and sends orders to his officers. If our general is killed or disabled, another takes its place. With the Persians, if the leadership is destroyed, the whole army is leaderless and capitulates."
"Thank you, Phidias. I guess I knew that intuitively. That's why I like to attack their strongest point, because that is where the leaders put themselves."
"The Persians are very clever people and very rich," Phidias said. "It is that cleverness and wealth that may be their undoing. They are smug in their vast empire and huge cities. They haven't had an invading army in three hundred years. They believe their polyglot peoples are firmly under control of the Great King and his satraps. It is my opinion that the empire is rotten at its core and is open for a strong invader, such as you. I think if Darius is killed or captured, the entire empire will fall into your hand like a ripe plum."
"I hope you are right," said Alexander. "That is what I’m counting on. Let's not be over confident, however. The engagement at the Granicus was just a taste of much larger battles to come. We must remember that the enemy outnumbers us by a vast figure. My destiny is to conquer Asia, and with the help of Zeus and the other gods, I will."
The next day, he gave Phidias a letter. "Here is a letter I have written to Aristotle. Please enclose it with your letters and specimens that we have collected.”
"I will do that, Alexander."
"I enjoyed our discussion last night, Phidias. I have learned a lot about our enemy. It is extremely important to understand your enemy, don't you agree?"
"It is. However, it is more important to know yourself and your own forces. Know what your weaknesses are, so that you can correct them and the enemy cannot take advantage of them."
"Do I have weaknesses, Phidias?"
"Every mortal has weaknesses. That is why we may become ill, injured, or die. Men are also susceptible to greed, gluttony, excessive drink, or cruelty. The great Socrates said to know thyself, that the unexamined life is not worth living. Look deeply into your psyche, Alexander, and find your weaknesses. Do not succumb to them, or you may be your own worst enemy."
"Thank you for your insight, friend. Aristotle was right when he advised me to bring you with me. Thank him, for me, won't you?"
"I certainly will. I will also tell him about our discussion last night."
"Now I must go and confer with my generals and prepare to meet Darius's main army."
Phidias read Alexander's letter, which stated, "For my part I had rather surpass others in the knowledge of what is excellent, then in the extent of my power and dominion."
Noble words, thought Phidias. Aristotle has given him good values. He is an idealistic youth with good intentions, high ideals, and lofty dreams. He truly yearns for knowledge and appreciates fine thought and discourse.
Having a kingdom and all it responsibility thrust upon him at the age of twenty, Alexander’s formal education ended. Yes, he can converse brilliantly, but only if the subjects are politics or war. He might be able to think in universal terms, but he is still a slave of superstition. He listens to soothsayers and astrologers and performs magical ceremonies to various gods.
I am afraid that Aristotle’s careful grooming may be only a veneer over his inherited barbarian ways. He likes to partake in strong drink, sometimes having a good time with his fellow soldiers, but sometimes to dull the fires in his soul. I hope this weakness he will discover and control before it controls him.
Chapter 23
While marching through Asia Minor, Alexander became ill at Tarsus. "It must be some of that damned Asian food," said Alexander, between abdominal cramps. "I don't see how the barbarians can keep down all that spicy food."
One of his advisers spoke to him sympathetically, "Sire, you cannot get off your couch except to move your bowels. You cannot eat or drink without vomiting. Let me call your physician, Philip."
"Yes, he may be able to help me. I have been two days without relief."
Philip came and diagnosed the problem as intestinal cramps due to tainted food. "I must go prepare a purgative for you. I will return shortly, Sire."
"Thank you Philip, but come back as soon as you can."
Cleitus entered the tent and announced that he had a letter from Parmenion that he said was urgent. "What does the letter say, Cleitus? I am too weak to read it."
"It says that you should not trust your physician, Philip. Darius has bribed him to poison you. Darius has many spies and Greeks in his pay."
"Thank you for that information. Philip will be returning momentarily with a medication for my illness.” Alexander considered his options. Should he arrest him, torture him, execute him? Should he distrust and suspect all his men as possible agents of Darius? Would any of them put their trust in him as their leader, if he distrusted them? He would have to use this as an opportunity to impress his leadership.
At that moment, Philip returned. "I have prepared a purgative for you to drink. It will ease the cramps and allow you to keep a simple broth on your stomach."
Alexander took the cup. "Thank you, Philip. Here read this letter from Parmenion while I drink it."
Philip took the letter and started reading as Alexander raised the cup to his lips. He blanched as he read, while Alexander watched him as he started drinking. Alexander finished the draught and put down the cup. "The elixir was quite bitter. I hope it works," he said.
"I think you will feel much better tomorrow, Sire. I can say that Darius attempted to bribe me, but I returned his gold. Thank you for putting your trust in me. I will continue to serve you, loyally. Your trust will not be wasted. Now you must rest."
The next day, Alexander rose, dressed in his armor and emerged from his tent, refreshed and ready to give new orders. The prescribed potion produced its promise, and Alexander acknowledged its accomplishment. Philip was rewarded with more captured Persian gold than Darius had ever promised him.
Alexander allowed his army to rest, heal their wounds, and resupply themselves, then resumed his march down the coast of Asia Minor, where numerous Ionian Greek cities were located.
"I belie
ve that the Ionian Greeks will welcome us as liberators from the Persians. We need to purchase food and supplies from them. I'm sure they will open their gates to us," said Alexander.
Craterus, one of his senior generals, replied, "I am not so sure that they will, Alexander. The Greek mercenaries that we fight are mostly from those cities. They are glad to get Persian gold, whether it is to fight Macedonians or fellow Greeks. What if they close their gates to us, will you besiege them?"
"I cannot waste time and manpower fighting other Greeks, even Ionians. I am not as pessimistic as you. I will offer them democratic, self-government under our protection. We will free our fellow Greeks from the Persian yoke."
Alexander's prediction was precise. The Greek cities opened their gates without resistance, welcoming him as a liberator. They not only supplied his army with food and material but helped to fill his ranks. "We would rather fight alongside you against the Persians, then against fellow Greeks," one of the leaders from Miletus said. The wealthy merchants and bankers were generous with loans and supplies, and Alexander’s refurbished army resumed its march south.
* * *
About a year after the battle at the Granicus, Alexander met the main army of the Persians under Darius himself at Issus. An army of mixed contingents from all parts of the empire numbering about 160,000 met Alexander's army of one third the size.
Darius had brought his army to the Syrian coast behind Alexander's line of advance. He thus forced Alexander to turn and regain his line of communications. The Persians in their eagerness, took their stand in a geographical bottleneck, a mile wide coastal area between the hills and the sea. They again formed their battle line behind a stream. But because of the cramped space, Darius could not take advantage of his numerical superiority. The rear half of the army could only watch the action of the front ranks.
Alexander’s observers brought reports of the disposition of the enemy. He addressed his two chief generals. "How are the Persians arrayed and where are their strengths?"
"Alexander," said Craterus, "the enemy vastly outnumbers us. Fortunately, we are in a narrow space, and they cannot come around our flanks. Nevertheless, I think we must keep our flanks strong to prevent such a movement."
