154 Kessler, Das Tagebuch, vol. 9, p. 554 (entry for 1 April 1933). In a letter of 1 April 1933 Theodor Heuss called the “boycott” on the streets of Berlin “nothing other than shameful”; In der Defensive, p. 132.
155 See Longerich, Politik der Vernichtung, pp. 39–41; Wildt, Volksgemeinschaft als Selbstermächtigung, pp. 158ff.
156 Text in Die Verfolgung und Ermordung der europäischen Juden, vol. 1, doc. 29, pp. 130–4.
157 Hindenburg to Hitler, 4 April 1932; Hubatsch, Hindenburg und der Staat, pp. 375f.
158 Hindenburg to Prince Carl of Sweden, 26 April 1933; Die Regierung Hitler, part 1, vol. 1, no. 109, pp. 391f.; see Hitlers Tischgespräche, p. 330 (dated 21 May 1942).
159 Hitler to Hindenburg, 5 April 1933; Hubatsch, Hindenburg und der Staat, pp. 376–8.
160 See Longerich, Politik der Vernichtung, p. 41–5; Friedländer, Das Dritte Reich und die Juden, vol. 1, pp. 40–3.
161 Harold James, “Die Deutsche Bank und die Diktatur 1933–1945,” in Lothar Gall et al., Die Deutsche Bank 1870–1995, Munich, 1995, p. 337. See Friedländer, Das Dritte Reich und die Juden, vol. 1, p. 46.
162 On the following see Volker Ullrich, “Anpassung um jeden Preis? Die Kapitualition der deutschen Gewerkschaften 1932/33,” in Inge Marssolek and Till Schelz-Brandenburg (eds), Soziale Demokratie und sozialistische Theorie: Festschrift für Hans-Josef Steinberg zum 60. Geburtstag, Bremen, 1995, pp. 245–55.
163 Peter Jahn (ed.), Die Gewerkschaften in der Endphase der Republik 1930–1933, Cologne, 1988, doc. 189, pp. 865–7.
164 Ibid., doc. 197, pp. 881f.
165 Leipart to Hindenburg, 10 March 1933; Die Regierung Hitler, part 1, vol. 1, no. 53, pp. 188f. On SA violence against unions see Michael Schneider, Unterm Hakenkreuz: Arbeiter und Arbeiterbewegung 1933 bis 1939, Bonn, 1999, pp. 61–5.
166 Cabinet meeting on 24 March 1933; Die Regierung Hitler, part 1, vol. 1, no. 72, p. 252. See Goebbels, Tagebücher, part 1, vol. 2/3, p. 155 (entry for 25 March 1933): “I managed to get 1 May approved as a national holiday. The cabinet gave me a mandate to see that it is put into practice. I’m going to make it huge.” On 7 April 1933, the cabinet passed a draft law concerning the “The Holiday of National Labour.” See Die Regierung Hitler, no. 93, pp. 311f.
167 Goebbels, Tagebücher, part 1, vol. 2/3, p. 170 (entry for 18 April 1933).
168 Jahn, Die Gewerkschaften in der Endphase der Republik, doc. 206, pp. 898–200.
169 Ibid., doc. 204, p. 897.
170 See Goebbels, Tagebücher, part 1, vol. 2/3, p. 177 (entry for 30 April 1933): “Tempelhof. Gigantic facilities. Unprecedented. This will be a unique mass event.” On the May 1933 holiday see Peter Fritzsche, Wie aus Deutsche Nazis wurden, Zurich and Munich, 1999, pp. 229ff.
171 Domarus, Hitler, vol. 1, part 1, pp. 259–64.
172 Goebbels, Tagebücher, part 1, vol. 2/3, p. 179 (entry for 2 May 1933); François-Poncet, Als Botschafter in Berlin, pp. 115f.
173 Goebbels, Tagebücher, part 1, vol. 2/3, p. 179 (entry for 3 May 1933).
174 See Ronald Smelser, Robert Ley: Hitlers Mann an der “Arbeitsfront,” Potsdam, 1989, pp. 134ff.
175 See Broszat, Der Staat Hitlers, pp. 185–90; Frei, Der Führerstaat, p. 74.
176 Goebbels, Tagebücher, part 1, vol. 2/3, p. 200 (entry for 3 June 1933).
177 Die Regierung Hitler, part 1, vol. 1, no. 165, pp. 575–7. On the end of the SPD see Erich Matthias, “Die Sozialdemokratische Partei Deutschlands,” in idem and Rudolf Morsey (eds), Das Ende der Parteien 1933, Düsseldorf, 1960, pp. 168–75, 180–7; Winkler, Der Weg in die Katastrophe, particularly pp. 915–18; 923–5, 929–49.
178 Quoted in Winkler, Der Weg in die Katastrophe, p. 947. On the “Köpenick Blood Week” see Richard J. Evans, The Third Reich in Power, London, 2005, p. 21.
179 Goebbels, Tagebücher, part 1, vol. 2/4, p. 213 (entry for 23 June 1933).
180 On the end of the German State Party and the German People’s Party see Erich Matthias and Rudolf Morsey, “Die Deutsche Staatspartei,” in idem, Das Ende der Parteien, pp. 65–72; Ludwig Richter, Die Deutsche Volkspartei 1918–1933, Düsseldorf, 2002, pp. 801–20.
181 Goebbels, Tagebücher, part 1, vol. 2/3, p. 176 (entry for 28 April 1933), p. 212 (entry for 22 June 1933). On 7 Nov. 1935, Hitler declared the Stahlhelm, which had continued to exist as a “traditional association,” dissolved. See the draft of the letter (with Hitler’s handwritten corrections) in BA Berlin-Lichterfelde, NS 10/123. See also the minutes of the meeting between Hitler and Seldte in Haus Wachenfeld on 12 Aug. 1935 with reference to the future of the Stahlhelm; BA Berlin-Lichterfelde, NS 10/30.
182 Minutes of Hindenburg’s meeting with Hugenberg and Winterfeld, 17 May 1933; BA Koblenz, N 1231/38. On the attacks on DNVP centres see Beck, The Fateful Alliance, pp. 228–43.
183 Cabinet meeting on 27 June 1933; Die Regierung Hitler, part 1, vol. 1, no. 170, p. 601. On Hugenberg’s resignation and the dissolution of the German National Front see Beck, The Fateful Alliance, pp. 283–93.
184 Kessler, Das Tagebuch, vol. 9, p. 596 (entry for 28 June 1933).
185 Hugenberg to Hitler, 13 Sept. 1933; Hitler to Hugenberg, 24 Dec. 1933; Hugenberg to Hitler, 26 Jan. 1934; BA Koblenz, N 1231/37.
186 Die Regierung Hitler, part 1, vol. 1, no. 170, p. 601; no. 175, p. 609.
187 Goebbels, Tagebücher, part 1, vol. 2/3, p. 217 (entry for 28 June 1933), p. 218 (entry for 29 June 1933).
188 See ibid., p. 219 (entry for 1 July 1933): “Centre Party wants to dissolve, but only under the same conditions as the DNVP. Rejected. The party should be broken!” On the end of the Centre Party see Rudolf Morsey, “Die deutsche Zentrumspartei,” in Matthias and Morsey, Das Ende der Parteien, pp. 377–404; Winfried Becker, “Die Deutsche Zentrumspartei gegenüber dem Nationalsozialismus und dem Reichskonkordat 1930–1933,” in Historisch-Politische Mitteilungen, 7 (2000), pp. 1–37.
189 See Martina Steber, “…dass der Partei nicht nur äussere, sondern auch innere Gefahren drohen”: Die Bayerische Volkspartei im Jahr 1933,” in Wirsching (ed.), Das Jahr 1933, pp. 70–91.
190 Cabinet meeting on 14 July 1933; Die Regierung Hitler, part 1, vol. 1, no. 193, pp. 661f. Wording in Sösemann, Propaganda, vol. 1, p. 133.
191 Swiss chargé d’affaires Hans Frölicher to Federal Counsellor Giuseppe Motta, 7 July 1933; Bajohr and Strupp (eds), Fremde Blicke auf das “Dritte Reich,” p. 382.
192 Report by François-Poncet to Foreign Minister Paul Boncour, 4 July 1933; Becker, Hitlers Machtergreifung, pp. 365f.
193 Heuss, In der Defensive, p. 163 (entry for 25 June 1933). See Rosenberg, Tagebücher 1933–1937, p. 97 (entry for 7 May 1933): “Everything is in flux. One event follows the next. No one knows what tomorrow will look like.”
194 Haffner, Geschichte eines Deutschen, p. 186.
195 Klemperer, Tagebücher 1933–1941, p. 39 (entry for 9 July 1933).
196 Die Regierung Hitler, part 1, vol. 1, no. 75, pp. 260f.
197 Quoted in Pyta, “Geteiltes Charisma,” p. 57.
198 Ebermayer, Denn heute gehört uns Deutschland, p. 33 (dated 28 Feb. 1933).
199 Kessler, Das Tagebuch, vol. 9, p. 551 (entry for 7 March 1933).
200 Thomas Mann, Tagebücher 1933–1934, ed. Peter de Mendelssohn, Frankfurt am Main, 1977, p. 52 (entry for 20 April 1933).
201 See Haffner, Geschichte eines Deutschen, particularly pp. 139f.
202 Wehler, Deutsche Gesellschaftsgeschichte 1914–1949, pp. 601–3. See also Horst Möller, “Die nationalsozialistische Machtergreifung: Konterrevolution oder Revolution?,” in Vierteljahrshefte für Zeitgeschichte, 31 (1983), pp. 25–51. Möller (p. 50) also sees the “ambition to control broad areas of the total reality of life in the Nazi state” as an indication of the regime’s “revolutionary character.”
203 Domarus, Hitler, vol. 1, part 1, p. 286. See also minutes of the Reich governors’ conference on 6 July 1933 (probably based on the notes by Reich Governor Ritter von Epp) in Die Regierung Hitler, part 1
, vol. 1, no. 180, pp. 629–36: “Revolution cannot be a permanent state…further development must take the form of evolution” (p. 631). See also Hitler’s decree about the powers of Reich Governor Ritter von Epp of 6 July 1933; BA Koblenz, N 1101/95.
204 Becker, Hitlers Machtergreifung, p. 340.
205 See the excellent account in Evans, The Coming of the Third Reich, pp. 392–440 (“Hitler’s Cultural Revolution”).
206 See Goebbels, Tagebücher, part 1, vol. 2/3, p. 316 (entry for 16 Nov. 1933); Ebermayer, Denn heute gehört uns Deutschland, pp. 203f. (dated 16 Nov. 1933); Evans, The Third Reich in Power, pp. 138f.
207 Domarus, Hitler, vol. 1, part 1, p. 193
208 Die Regierung Hitler, part 1, vol. 1, no. 180, p. 632.
209 See also Christoph Buchheim, “Das NS-Regime und die Überwindung der Weltwirtschaftskrise in Deutschland,” in Vierteljahrshefte für Zeitgeschichte, 56 (2008), pp. 381–414, particularly pp. 383–9.
210 Die Regierung Hitler, part 1, vol. 1, no. 17, p. 55 (dated 8 Feb. 1933). On Hitler’s caution regarding economic policy during the first months of his chancellorship see Detlev Humann, “Arbeitsschlacht”: Arbeitsbeschaffung und Propaganda in der NS-Zeit 1933–1939, Göttingen, 2011, pp. 58ff.
211 See Buchheim, “Das NS-Regime und die Überwindung der Weltwirtschaftskrise,” pp. 390f.; Evans, The Third Reich in Power, p. 330; Humann, “Arbeitsschlacht,” pp. 75–8.
212 See Buchheim, “Das NS-Regime und die Überwindung der Weltwirtschaftskrise,” pp. 392–5; Evans, The Third Reich in Power, pp. 330f; Humann, “Arbeitsschlacht,” pp. 118ff., 152ff., 242ff., 366ff., 428ff. On the unreliability of the statistics see ibid., pp. 624ff.
213 Domarus, Hitler, vol. 1, part 1, pp. 208f.
214 See Die Regierung Hitler, part 1, vol. 1, p. xliii (introduction); no. 92, p. 308n7 (dated 6 April 1933). See also Adam Tooze, The Wages of Destruction: The Making and Breaking of the Nazi Economy, London, 2006, pp. 46f.
215 Report by Hafraba’s commercial director Hof on a meeting with Hitler, 6 April 1933; Die Regierung Hitler, part 1, vol. 1, no. 92, pp. 306–11 (quotations on pp. 308f., 310).
216 Meeting with leading industrialists, 29 May 1933; ibid., no. 147, pp. 506–27 (quote on p. 511).
217 See Goebbels, Tagebücher, part 1, vol. 2/3, p. 275 (entry for 24 Sept. 1933). On “labour battle” propaganda see Humann, “Arbeitsschlacht,” p. 635ff.
218 See Tooze, The Wages of Destruction, p. 47.
219 Die Regierung Hitler, part 1, vol. 2, no. 211, p. 741 (dated 18 Sept. 1933). See Evans, The Third Reich in Power, pp. 327f.
220 See Hans Mommsen and Manfred Grieger, Das Volkswagenwerk und seine Arbeiter im Dritten Reich, Düsseldorf, 1996, pp. 56ff.
221 Die Regierung Hitler, part 1, vol. 1, no. 19, p. 62 (dated 9 Feb. 1933). See above p. 417.
222 See Christopher Kopper, Hjalmar Schacht: Aufstieg und Fall von Hitlers mächtigstem Bankier, Munich and Vienna, 2006, pp. 205–9. In a letter to the editor of the weekly newspaper Die Zeit on 20 July 1948, Theodor Duesterberg, the former second-in-command of the Stahlhelm, accused Schacht of being, next to Papen, “the man most responsible for helping Hitler gain power during Hindenburg’s lifetime.” Duesterberg also wrote that he could not believe that “such a respected newspaper” would defend Schacht. BA Koblenz, N 1377/27.
223 Tooze, The Wages of Destruction, pp. 53f.
224 See Kopper, Hjalmar Schacht, pp. 269f.; Tooze, The Wages of Destruction, pp. 54, 62; Evans, The Third Reich in Power, p. 345.
225 Goebbels, Tagebücher, part 1, vol. 2/3, p. 313 (entry for 13 Nov. 1933). See also Hitler’s address to the second meeting of the General Council for the Economy, 20 Sept. 1933: “Those who rest, rust. Those who stand still, fall.” Die Regierung Hitler, part 1, vol. 2, no. 214, p. 810.
226 See Wehler, Deutsche Gesellschaftsgeschichte 1914–1949, pp. 646f.; Ludolf Herbst, Hitlers Charisma: Die Erfindung eines deutschen Messias, Frankfurt am Main, 2010, pp. 22f.; 259f.; Dirk van Laak, “Adolf Hitler,” in Frank Möller (ed.), Charismatische Führer der deutschen Nation, Munich, 2004, pp. 162f.
227 See Longerich, Die braunen Bataillone, pp. 188–91.
228 See ibid., pp. 183f.
229 Becker, Hitlers Machtergreifung, pp. 327–30 (quotations on p. 329). See also Röhm’s memo of 30 May 1933, in which he refers to the danger that “the SA and SS could be reduced to the role of mere propaganda troops.” BA Berlin-Lichterfelde, NS 26/328.
230 Goebbels, Tagebücher, part 1, vol. 2/3, p. 156 (entry for 27 March 1933).
231 Ibid., p. 230 (entry for 19 July 1933), pp. 252f. (entry for 25 Aug. 1933).
232 Domarus, Hitler, vol. 1, part 1, pp. 293f. See “Zeitfolge für den Besuch des Herrn Reichskanzlers und des Herrn Preussischen Ministerpräsidenten in Neudeck und die Tannenbergfeier am 27. August 1933” in BA Berlin-Lichterfelde R 43 II/971. For the memorial ceremony, participants were ordered to wear “dark coattails with a dark top hat or other dark hat,” and for the dinner with Hindenburg “a tuxedo with medals.” On 25 April 1934 Hitler thanked Hindenburg for the best wishes and flowers on his birthday and told the Reich president how happy he was “to be allowed to do what I can to rebuild the Reich in peacetime under the greatest field marshal of the world war.” See the draft of the letter (with Hitler’s handwritten corrections) and the final version, BA Berlin-Lichterfelde, NS 10/123.
233 Die Regierung Hitler, part 1, vol. 1, no. 180, p. 631; part 1, vol. 2, no. 222, p. 868.
234 Draft of the letter (with Hitler’s handwritten amendments) in BA Berlin-Lichterfelde NS 10/123.
235 Goebbels, Tagebücher, part 1, vol. 2/3, p. 309 (entry for 8 Nov. 1933).
236 Deutschland-Berichte der Sozialdemokratischen Partei Deutschlands (Sopade) 1934–1940, ed. Klaus Behnken, Frankfurt am Main, 1980, 1 (1934), p. 101; see also pp. 9–13, 99–103 for further pieces of evidence for the change of national mood in the spring and early summer of 1934. See Frei, Der Führerstaat, pp. 9–17; Thamer, Verführung und Gewalt, pp. 327f.; Ian Kershaw, The Hitler Myth: Image and Reality in the Third Reich, Oxford, 1987, pp. 21–31.
237 Report by envoy Herluf Zahle dated 16 April 1934; Bajohr and Strupp (eds), Fremde Blicke auf das “Dritte Reich,” p. 403. See also the report by John C. White from the U.S. embassy, 26 April 1933, in which he talks of “increasing discontent with present conditions.” Ibid., p. 403.
238 Klemperer, Tagebücher 1933–1941, p. 86 (entry for 7 Feb. 1934). See Irene Strenge, Ferdinand von Bredow: Notizen vom 20. 2. 1933 bis 31. 12. 1933. Tägliche Aufzeichnungen vom 1. 1. 1934 bis 28. 6. 1934, Berlin, 2009, p. 223 (entry for 26 March 1934): “Everywhere’s there’s complaining…There’s a lot of unhappiness in the air”; ibid., p. 230 (entry for 25 May 1934): “Nowhere is there any joy, unhappiness everywhere…everyone sees this coming to a bad end.”
239 Goebbels, Tagebücher, part 1, vol. 3/1, p. 39 (entry for 24 April 1934), p. 48 (entry for 13 May 1934).
240 Longerich, Die braunen Bataillone, p. 203.
241 See ibid., p. 204.
242 See Müller, Armee und Drittes Reich, pp. 57, 64; doc. 57, pp. 192–5. See also Kirstin A. Schäfer, Werner von Blomberg: Hitlers erster Feldmarschall. Eine Biographie, Paderborn, 2006, pp. 123f., 136; Immo von Fallois, Kalkül und Illusion: Der Machtkampf zwischen Reichswehr und SA während der Röhm-Krise 1934, Berlin, 1994, pp. 106–12.
243 Müller, Armee und Drittes Reich, doc. 58, p. 195; Schäfer, Werner von Blomberg, p. 137.
244 See Bracher et al., Die nationalsozialistische Machtergreifung, p. 944; Heinz Höhne, Mordsache Röhm: Hitlers Durchbruch zur Alleinherrschaft 1933–1934, Reinbek, 1984, p. 206. Hanfstaengl encountered “an enraged, hollering, drunken Röhm” on the street, bellowing the “foulest curses I’ve ever heard.” Hanfstaengl’s unpublished memoirs, p. 306; BSB München, Nl Hanfstaengl, Ana 405, Box 47.
245 See Diels, Lucifer ante portas, pp. 379–82; Longerich, Die braunen Bataillone, p. 208; Fallois, Kalkül und Illusion, p. 125.
246 See Longerich, Heinrich Himmler, pp. 178, 181f.; Gerwarth, Reinhard Heydrich, pp. 101f., 104f.
247 Goebbels, Tagebücher, part 1, vol. 3/1, p. 49 (entry for 15 May 1934).
248 Adolf Hitler, Reden, Schriften, Anordnungen—Februar 1925 bis Januar 1933. Vol. 4: Von der Reichstagswahl bis zur Reichspräsidentenwahl Oktober 1930–März 1932. Part 1: Oktober 1930–Juni 1931, ed. Constantin Goschler, Munich, 1993, doc. 54, p. 183. See Lothar Machtan, Hitlers Geheimnis: Das Doppelleben eines Diktators, Berlin, 2001, pp. 208f. As early as February 1927, Hitler had expressed concern about the “175ers in the party.” R. Buttmann’s diary dated 14 Feb. 1927; BayHStA München, Nl Buttmann 83.
249 Adolf Hitler, Reden, Schriften, Anordnungen—Februar 1925 bis Januar 1933. Vol. 5: Von der Reichspräsidentenwahl bis zur Machtergreifung April 1932–Januar 1933. Part 1: April 1932–September 1932, ed. Klaus A. Lankheit, Munich, 1996, doc. 15, p. 32. See Machtan, Hitlers Geheimnis, pp. 217–28; Susanne zur Nieden, “Aufstieg und Fall des virilen Männerhelden: Der Skandal um Ernst Röhm und seine Ermordung,” in idem (ed.), Homosexualität und Staatsräson: Männlichkeit, Homophobie und Politik in Deutschland 1900–1945, Frankfurt am Main 2005, pp. 147–75.
250 Goebbels, Tagebücher, part 1, vol. 3/1, p. 57 (entry for 3 June 1934).
251 Hanfstaengl, Zwischen Weissem und Braunem Haus, pp. 340f. In a confidential letter of 12 June 1934, Hermann Höfle—a former member of the Epp Freikorps who had taken part in the 1923 putsch—had warned Röhm against “intrigues” directed against him from within the Reichswehr. Höfle encouraged Röhm to get Hitler to “take an uncompromising public stand for the SA in the presence of all the army’s generals and important officials.” BA Berlin-Lichterfelde, NS 26/328.
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