Guibert of Nogent, p. 87; J.H. and L.L. Hill, Raymond IV, Count of Toulouse (Syracuse, 1962).
William of Malmesbury, Gesta Regum Anglorum, vol. 1, ed. and trans. R. A. B. Mynors, R. M. Thomson and M. Winterbottom, vol. 1 (Oxford, 1998), p. 693; Anna Comnena, vol. 3, pp. 122–3; R. B. Yewdale, Bohemond I, Prince of Antioch (Princeton, 1917); R. L. Nicholson, Tancred: A Study of His Career and Work in Their Relation to the First Crusade and the Establishment of the Latin States in Syria and Palestine (Chicago, 1940).
J. C. Andressohn, The Ancestry and Life of Godfrey of Bouillon (Bloomington, 1947); P. Gindler, Graf Balduin I. von Edessa (Halle, 1901); C. W. David, Robert Curthose, Duke of Normandy (Cambridge, Mass., 1920); W. M. Aird, Robert Curthose, Duke of Normandy (Woodbridge, 2008); J. A. Brundage, ‘An errant crusader: Stephen of Blois’, Traditio, vol. 16 (1960), pp. 380–95; Gesta Francorum, p. 7; J. A. Brundage, Medieval Canon Law and the Crusader (Madison, 1969), pp. 17–18, 30–39, 115–21; J. A. Brundage, ‘The army of the First Crusade and the crusade vow: Some reflections on a recent book’, Medieval Studies, vol. 33 (1971), pp. 334–43; Riley-Smith, The First Crusaders, pp. 22–3, 81–2, 114; Mayer, The Crusades, pp. 21–3; Riley-Smith, The First Crusade and the Idea of Crusading, p. 47; France, Victory in the East, pp. 11–16; Asbridge, The First Crusade, pp. 66–76; Housley, Contesting the Crusades, pp. 24–47.
Anna Comnena, vol. 2, pp. 206–7, 233. On Byzantine history see: M. Angold, The Byzantine Empire, 1025–1204: A Political History, 2nd edn (London, 1997). On crusader–Byzantine relations during the First Crusade see: R.-J. Lilie, Byzantium and the Crusader States 1096–1204, trans. J. C. Morris and J. E. Ridings (Oxford, 1993), pp. 1–60; J. H. Pryor, ‘The oaths of the leaders of the First Crusade to emperor Alexius I Comnenus: fealty, homage, pistis, douleia’, Parergon, vol. 2 (1984), pp. 111–41; J. Shepard, ‘Cross purposes: Alexius Comnenus and the First Crusade’, The First Crusade: Origins and Impact, ed. J. P. Phillips (Manchester, 1997), pp. 107–29; J. Harris, Byzantium and the Crusades (London, 2006), pp. 53–71.
Albert of Aachen, p. 84; Anna Comnena, vol. 2, pp. 220–34; Asbridge, The First Crusade, pp. 103–13.
Raymond of Aguilers, pp. 42–3; Gesta Francorum, p. 15; Fulcher of Chartres, p. 187; Albert of Aachen, pp. 118–20.
Gesta Francorum, p. 15; Hagenmeyer, Kreuzzugsbriefe, pp. 138–40; Anna Comnena, vol. 2, pp. 230, 234.
Fulcher of Chartres, pp. 202–3; W. G. Zajac, ‘Captured property on the First Crusade’, The First Crusade: Origins and Impact, ed. J. P. Phillips (Manchester, 1997), pp. 153–86.
Gesta Francorum, pp. 18–21; Fulcher of Chartres, pp. 192–9; France, Victory in the East, pp. 170–85; Asbridge, The First Crusade, pp. 133–7.
Albert of Aachen, pp. 138–40. The quotation has been abridged. Gesta Francorum, p. 23.
T. S. Asbridge, The Creation of the Principality of Antioch 1098–1130 (Woodbridge, 2000), pp. 16–19; France, Victory in the East, pp. 190–96; Albert of Aachen, p. 170.
I myself espoused this assumption in 2004. Asbridge, The First Crusade, pp. 153–7.
Hagenmeyer, Kreuzzugsbriefe, p. 150; Raymond of Aguilers, pp. 47–8.
Gesta Francorum, p. 42; Fulcher of Chartres, p. 221; Albert of Aachen, pp. 208–10, 236–8; Hagenmeyer, Kreuzzugsbriefe, p. 150; Matthew of Edessa, pp. 167–8.
Fulcher of Chartres, pp. 224–6; Asbridge, The First Crusade, pp. 169–96. On the debate regarding Taticius’ departure see: Lilie, Byzantium and the Crusader States, pp. 33–7; J. France, ‘The departure of Tatikios from the army of the First Crusade’, Bulletin of the Institute of Historical Research, vol. 44 (1971), pp. 131–47; France, Victory in the East, p. 243. On the first siege of Antioch see also: R. Rogers, Latin Siege Warfare in the Twelfth Century (Oxford, 1992), pp. 25–38.
Hagenmeyer, Kreuzzugsbriefe, p. 151; Raymond of Aguilers, p. 58. On the First Crusaders’ relations with Near Eastern Muslims see: M. A. Köhler, Allianzen und Verträge zwischen frankischen und islamischen Herrschern in Vorderren Orient (Berlin, 1991), pp. 1–72; T. Asbridge, ‘Knowing the enemy: Latin relations with Islam at the time of the First Crusade’, Knighthoods of Christ, ed. N. Housley (Aldershot, 2007), pp. 17–25; Albert of Aachen, p. 268.
Fulcher of Chartres, p. 233; Albert of Aachen, pp. 282–4; Gesta Francorum, p. 48.
Gesta Francorum, p. 48; Peter Tudebode, p. 97; Albert of Aachen, pp. 298–300. This quotation has been abridged.
Raymond of Aguilers, p. 75; Gesta Francorum, pp. 65–6.
T. Asbridge, ‘The Holy Lance of Antioch: Power, devotion and memory on the First Crusade’, Reading Medieval Studies, vol. 33 (2007), pp. 3–36.
Matthew of Edessa, p. 171; Ibn al-Athir, vol. 1, p. 16; Albert of Aachen, p. 320.
Ibn al-Qalanisi, p. 46. On the Battle of Antioch see: France, Victory in the East, pp. 280–96; Asbridge, The First Crusade, pp. 232–40.
Raymond of Aguilers, p. 75; C. Morris, ‘Policy and vision: The case of the Holy Lance found at Antioch’, War and Government in the Middle Ages: Essays in honour of J. O. Prestwich, ed. J. Gillingham and J. C. Holt (Woodbridge, 1984), pp. 33–45.
Fulcher of Chartres, pp. 266–7; Raymond of Aguilers, p. 101; T. Asbridge, ‘The principality of Antioch and the Jabal as-Summaq’, The First Crusade: Origins and Impact, ed. J. P. Phillips (Manchester, 1997), pp. 142–52. For alternative readings of these events see: Hill, Raymond IV, Count of Toulouse, pp. 85–109; J. France, ‘The crisis of the First Crusade from the defeat of Kerbogha to the departure from Arqa’, Byzantion, vol. 40 (1970), pp. 276–308.
Raymond of Aguilers, pp. 120–24, 128–9; Fulcher of Chartres, pp. 238–41.
Albert of Aachen, p. 402.
Fulcher of Chartres, pp. 281–92. On medieval Jerusalem see: A. J. Boas, Jerusalem in the Time of the Crusades (London, 2001); J. Prawer, ‘The Jerusalem the crusaders captured: A contribution to the medieval topography of the city’, Crusade and Settlement, ed. P. W. Edbury (Cardiff, 1985), pp. 1–16; France, Victory in the East, pp. 333–5, 337–43.
Raymond of Aguilers, pp. 139–41; Albert of Aachen, pp. 410–12. On the siege of Jerusalem see: France, Victory in the East, pp. 332–55; Rogers, Latin Siege Warfare, pp. 47–63; Asbridge, The First Crusade, pp. 298–316.
Raymond of Aguilers, pp. 141–2; Albert of Aachen, p. 422.
Raymond of Aguilers, pp. 146–8; Albert of Aachen, p. 416.
Raymond of Aguilers, pp. 148–9; Fulcher of Chartres, pp. 296–9.
Raymond of Aguilers, p. 150; Gesta Francorum, p. 91; Robert the Monk, p. 868.
Ibn al-Athir, pp. 21–2; Fulcher of Chartres, pp. 304–5; B. Z. Kedar, ‘The Jerusalem massacre of 1099 in the western historiography of the crusades’, Crusades, vol. 3 (2004), pp. 15–75.
Historians continue to debate the precise nature of Godfrey’s title. He may well also have employed the appellation ‘prince’, but it is relatively certain that he did not style himself as ‘king of Jerusalem’. On this debate see: J. S. C. Riley-Smith, ‘The title of Godfrey of Bouillon’, Bulletin of the Institute of Historical Research, vol. 52 (1979), pp. 83–6; J. France, ‘The election and title of Godfrey de Bouillon’, Canadian Journal of History, vol. 18 (1983), pp. 321–9; A. V. Murray, The Crusader Kingdom of Jerusalem: A Dynastic History 1099–1125 (Oxford, 2000), pp. 63–77.
Peter Tudebode, pp. 146–7; France, Victory in the East, pp. 360–65; Asbridge, The First Crusade, pp. 323–7.
On the 1101 crusade see: Riley-Smith, The First Crusade and the Idea of Crusading, pp. 120–34; J. L. Cate, ‘The crusade of 1101’, A History of the Crusades, ed. K. M. Setton, vol. 1, 2nd edn (Madison, 1969), pp. 343–67; A. Mullinder, ‘The Crusading Expeditions of 1101–2’ (unpublished Ph.D. thesis, University of Wales, Swansea, 1996).
On the evolving debate surrounding the centrality of the Gesta Francorum as a source for the First Crusade and on the identity of its author see: A. C. Krey, ‘A neglected passage in the Gesta and its bearing on the literature of the First Crusade’, The Crusades and Other Historical Essays presented
to Dana C. Munro by his former students, ed. L. J. Paetow (New York, 1928), pp. 57–78; K. B. Wolf, ‘Crusade and narrative: Bohemond and the Gesta Francorum’, Journal of Medieval History, vol. 17 (1991), pp. 207–16; C. Morris, ‘The Gesta Francorum as narrative history’, Reading Medieval Studies, vol. 19 (1993), pp. 55–71; J. France, ‘The Anonymous Gesta Francorum and the Historia Francorum qui ceperunt Iherusalem of Raymond of Aguilers and the Historia de Hierosolymitano Itinere of Peter Tudebode’, The Crusades and Their Sources: Essays Presented to Bernard Hamilton, ed. J. France and W. G. Zajac (Aldershot, 1998), pp. 39–69; J. France, ‘The use of the anonymous Gesta Francorum in the early twelfth-century sources for the First Crusade’, From Clermont to Jerusalem: The Crusades and Crusader Societies, 1095–1500, ed. A. V. Murray (Turnhout, 1998), pp. 29–42; J. Rubenstein, ‘What is the Gesta Francorum and who was Peter Tudebode?’, Revue Mabillon, vol. 16 (2005), pp. 179–204.
Kedar, ‘The Jerusalem massacre of 1099’, pp. 16–30; La Chanson d’Antioche, ed. S. Duparc-Quioc, 2 vols (Paris, 1982); The Canso d’Antioca: An Occitan Epic Chronicle of the First Crusade, trans. C. Sweetenham and L. Paterson (Aldershot, 2003). For a discussion of Robert the Monk’s account see: C. Sweetenham, Robert the Monk’s History of the First Crusade (Aldershot, 2005), pp. 1–71. On the role of memory see: Asbridge, ‘The Holy Lance of Antioch’, pp. 20–26; S. B. Edgington, ‘Holy Land, Holy Lance: religious ideas in the Chanson d’Antioche’, The Holy Land, Holy Lands and Christian History, Studies in Church History, ed. R. N. Swanson, vol. 36 (Woodbridge, 2000), pp. 142–53; S. B. Edgington, ‘Romance and reality in the sources for the sieges of Antioch, 1097–1098’, Porphyrogenita, ed. C. Dendrinos, J. Harris, E. Harvalia-Crook and J. Herrin (Aldershot, 2003), pp. 33–46; Y. Katzir, ‘The conquests of Jerusalem, 1099 and 1187: Historical memory and religious typology’, The Meeting of Two Worlds: Cultural Exchange between East and West in the Period of the Crusades, ed. V. P. Goss (Kalamazoo, 1986) pp. 103–13; J. M. Powell, ‘Myth, legend, propaganda, history: The First Crusade, 1140–c. 1300’, Autour de la Première Croisade, ed. M. Balard (Paris, 1996), pp. 127–41.
Ibn al-Qalanisi, pp. 44, 48; Ibn al-Athir, pp. 21–2; al-Azimi, pp. 372–3; C. Hillenbrand, ‘The First Crusade: The Muslim perspective’, The First Crusade: Origins and Impact, ed. J. P. Phillips (Manchester, 1997), pp. 130–41; Hillenbrand, The Crusades: Islamic Perspectives, pp. 50–68.
Hillenbrand, The Crusades: Islamic Perspectives, pp. 68–74; J. Drory, ‘Early Muslim reflections on the Crusaders’, Jerusalem Studies in Arabic and Islam, vol. 25 (2001), pp. 92–101; D. Ephrat and M. D. Kahba, ‘Muslim reaction to the Frankish presence in Bilad al-Sham: intensifying religious fidelity within the masses’, Al-Masaq, vol. 15 (2003), pp. 47–58; W. J. Hamblin, ‘To wage jihad or not: Fatimid Egypt during the early crusades’, The Jihad and its Times, ed. H. Dajani-Shakeel and R. A. Mossier (Ann Arbor, 1991), pp. 31–40. Al-Sulami was particularly unusual, because he identified accurately that the Franks were waging a holy war targeting Jerusalem. He also considered the crusade to be part of a wider Christian offensive against Islam that included conflicts in Iberia and Sicily. E. Sivan, ‘La genèse de la contre-croisade: un traité Damasquin du début du XIIe siècle’, Journal Asiatique, vol. 254 (1966), pp. 197–224; N. Christie, ‘Jerusalem in the Kitab al-Jihad of Ali ibn Tahir al-Sulami’, Medieval Encounters, vol. 13. 2 (2007), pp. 209–21; N. Christie and D. Gerish, ‘Parallel preaching: Urban II and al-Sulami’, Al-Masaq, vol. 15 (2003), pp. 139–48.
The term ‘crusader states’ is somewhat misleading, as it gives the impression that these settlements were exclusively populated by crusaders and that their history might be interpreted as an example of ongoing crusading activity. The vast majority of the surviving First Crusaders returned to the West in 1099, leaving Outremer to face perpetual manpower shortages and to rely upon the influx of new settlers, most of whom had not formally taken the cross. The issue of the continued influence of crusading ideology over the history of the Latin East is a more vexed question. J. S. C. Riley-Smith, ‘Peace never established: the Case of the Kingdom of Jerusalem’, Transactions of the Royal Historical Society, 5th series, vol. 28 (1978), pp. 87–102.
For an overview of the history of the crusader states in the first half of the twelfth century see: Mayer, The Crusades, pp. 58–92; Richard, The Crusades, pp. 77–169; Jotischky, Crusading and the Crusader States, pp. 62–102. For a detailed and lively (if not always entirely reliable) account of this period see: S. Runciman, ‘The kingdom of Jerusalem and the Frankish East 1100–1187’, A History of the Crusades, vol. 2 (Cambridge, 1952). For more detailed regional studies see: J. Prawer, Histoire du Royaume Latin de Jérusalem, 2nd edn, 2 vols (Paris, 1975); J. Richard, The Latin Kingdom of Jerusalem, trans. J. Shirley, 2 vols (Oxford, 1979); A. Murray, The Crusader Kingdom of Jerusalem: A Dynastic History 1099–1125 (Oxford, 2000); C. Cahen, La Syrie du Nord à l’époque des Croisades et la principauté Franque d’Antioche (Paris, 1940); T. Asbridge, The Creation of the Principality of Antioch (Woodbridge, 2000); J. Richard, La comté de Tripoli sous la dynastie toulousaine (1102–1187) (Paris, 1945); M. Amouroux-Mourad, Le comté d’Édesse, 1098–1150 (Paris, 1988); C. MacEvitt, The Crusades and the Christian World of the East (Philadelphia, 2008). The main chronicle and narrative primary sources for Outremer’s early history are: Fulcher of Chartres, Historia Hierosolymitana (1095–1127), ed. H. Hagenmeyer (Heidelberg, 1913); Albert of Aachen, Historia Iherosolimitana, ed. and trans. S. B. Edgington (Oxford, 2007); Walter the Chancellor, Bella Antiochena, ed. H. Hagenmeyer (Innsbruck, 1896); Orderic Vitalis, The Ecclesiastical History of Orderic Vitalis, ed. and trans. M. Chibnall, vols 5 and 6 (Oxford, 1975); William of Tyre, Chronicon, ed. R. B. C. Huygens, Corpus Christianorum, Continuatio Mediaevalis, 63–63A, 2 vols (Turnhout, 1986); Ibn al-Qalanisi, The Damascus Chronicle of the Crusades, extracted and translated from the Chronicle of Ibn al-Qalanisi, trans. H. A. R. Gibb (London, 1932); Ibn al-Athir, The Chronicle of Ibn al-Athir. Part 1, trans. D. S. Richards (Aldershot, 2006); Kemal ad-Din, La Chronique d’Alep, RHC Or. III, pp. 577–732; Anna Comnena, Alexiade, ed. and trans. B. Leib, vol. 3 (Paris, 1976); John Kinnamos, The Deeds of John and Manuel Comnenus, trans. C. M. Brand (New York, 1976); Matthew of Edessa, Armenia and the Crusades, Tenth to Twelfth Centuries: The Chronicle of Matthew of Edessa, trans. A. E. Dostourian (Lanham, 1993); Michael the Syrian, Chronique de Michel le Syrien, patriarche jacobite d’Antioche (1166–1199), ed. and trans. J. B. Chabot, 4 vols (Paris, 1899–1910); Anonymous Syriac Chronicle, ‘The First and Second Crusades from an Anonymous Syriac Chronicle’, ed. and trans. A. S. Tritton and H. A. R. Gibb, Journal of the Royal Asiatic Society, vol. 92 (1933), pp. 69–102, 273–306.
Albert of Aachen, p. 514. Murray, The Crusader Kingdom of Jerusalem, pp. 81–93; B. Hamilton, The Latin Church in the Crusader States. The Secular Church (1980), pp. 52–5.
William of Tyre, p. 454; Fulcher of Chartres, p. 353.
On the foundation of the Latin Church in Palestine and relations between the patriarch and king of Jerusalem see: Hamilton, The Latin Church in the Crusader States, pp. 52–85; K.-P. Kirstein, Die lateinischen Patriarchen von Jerusalem (Berlin, 2002). On the Jerusalemite True Cross see: A. V. Murray, ‘“Mighty against the enemies of Christ”: The relic of the True Cross in the armies of the kingdom of Jerusalem’, The Crusades and Their Sources: Essays Presented to Bernard Hamilton, ed. J. France and W. G. Zajac (Aldershot, 1998), pp. 217–37.
Fulcher of Chartres, pp. 387–8, 460–61; J. Wilkinson (trans.), Jerusalem Pilgrimage 1099–1185 (London, 1988), pp. 100–101; Albert of Aachen, p. 664. A northern-French cleric, Fulcher of Chartres began the First Crusade in the company of Count Stephen of Blois-Chartres, but later gravitated to Baldwin of Boulogne’s contingent, becoming his chaplain. Fulcher accompanied Baldwin to Edessa and then, with him, relocated to Jerusalem in 1100, remaining resident in the Holy City for the next three decades. In the earliest years of the twelfth century, Fulcher composed a history of the First Crusade (base
d, in part, upon the Gesta Francorum). He later extended his account to cover events in Outremer between 1100 and 1127, at which point his chronicle came to an abrupt end. As the work of a well-informed witness, Fulcher’s Historia is an invaluable source. V. Epp, Fulcher von Chartres: Studien zur Geschichtsschreibung des ersten Kreuzzuges (Düsseldorf, 1990).
Fulcher of Chartres, pp. 397, 403. On Outremer’s relations with the Italian mercantile communities see: M.L. Favreau-Lilie, Die Italiener im Heiligen Land vom ersten Kreuzzug bis zum Tode Heinrichs von Champagne (1098–1197) (Amsterdam, 1989).
In 1103, Muslim Acre was saved from an earlier Frankish siege by the timely arrival of a Fatimid fleet. It is possible that the Genoese may have carried out some ill-disciplined pillaging after Acre’s fall in 1104.
This incident was recorded in Latin and Muslim sources: Albert of Aachen, pp. 808–10; Ibn al-Qalanisi, pp. 108–10.
On the relationship between the Jerusalemite crown and the Frankish aristocracy see: Murray, The Crusader Kingdom of Jerusalem, pp. 97–114; S. Tibble, Monarchy and Lordships in the Latin Kingdom of Jerusalem 1099–1291 (Oxford, 1989).
Fulcher of Chartres, pp. 407–24; Albert of Aachen, pp. 580–82. On the first Battle of Ramla and the two campaigns that followed in 1102 and 1105 see: R. C. Smail, Crusading Warfare 1097–1193 (Cambridge, 1956), pp. 175–7; M. Brett, ‘The battles of Ramla (1099–1105)’, Egypt and Syria in the Fatimid, Ayyubid and Mamluk Eras, ed. U. Vermeulen and D. De Smet (Leuven, 1995), pp. 17–39. On Fatimid warfare see: B. J. Beshir, ‘Fatimid military organization’, Der Islam, vol. 55 (1978), pp. 37–56; W. J. Hamblin, ‘The Fatimid navy during the early crusades: 1099–1124’, American Neptune, vol. 46 (1986), pp. 77–83.
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