Fierce street fighting between the rebels and the British army turned the heart of Dublin into smoldering rubble for six days before Pearse offered an unconditional surrender. The last man out of the General Post Office before it was consumed by flames was a naturalized American citizen as well, the IRB supreme council member Diarmuid Lynch.
The Easter Rising claimed nearly five hundred lives, more than half of them civilians caught in the cross fire. The British responded by arresting more than thirty-five hundred suspected IRB sympathizers.
Like the Fenians who raided Canada, the leaders of the Easter Rising were political radicals who lacked the mantle of a popular mandate. Their rebellion might have ended in futility like so many Irish insurrections before them had the British not forgotten the lessons from the time of Stephens and O’Mahony.
Rather than grant clemency to the leaders of the Easter Rising as they had for the Fenian raids and the 1848 and 1867 rebellions, the British executed by firing squad the seven Irish Proclamation signatories—including Pearse and Clarke—and seven other rebel leaders just weeks after the rebellion.
Outrage followed the judicial murders, just as it had after the execution of the Manchester Martyrs. By killing the Easter Rising leaders, the British had transformed another Irish military failure into a political success. Pearse and his fellow patriots became the latest blood sacrifice on the altar of Irish freedom.
As W. B. Yeats wrote in his poem “Easter, 1916,” “All changed, changed utterly.”
* * *
By creating a fresh set of martyrs, the British fueled a revolution that would eventually lead to the fulfillment of most of the Fenians’ dreams. Irish republicans formed their own breakaway parliament, which declared independence from Great Britain and proclaimed itself the legislature of the new Irish Republic in 1919. They gained their own country in 1922 with the establishment of the semiautonomous Irish Free State after the two-and-a-half-year Irish War of Independence, although Ireland remained a British dominion similar to Canada.
However, freedom did not come with peace. Irish republicans cleaved once again, this time over the treaty with the British, which ceded only twenty-six of the island’s thirty-two counties to the Irish Free State. The remaining six counties in the north of Ireland remained British territory. An ensuing civil war might have killed even more Irishmen than the British had in the battle for their freedom. Not until 1949 were the last strings with the British Crown severed with the formal establishment of the Republic of Ireland.
Present through all the turmoil was an Easter Rising commandant who was born in the United States and spared the firing squad—Éamon de Valera. The most seminal figure of Irish history in the twentieth century, de Valera served for more than thirty years as either Ireland’s head of government or its head of state. The rebel carrying a gun through Dublin in 1916 was the same man to offer official welcome to America’s first Irish Catholic president, John F. Kennedy, when he visited Ireland in 1963.
Like the Irish republican movement itself, de Valera had strong ties to the United States. Born in New York City on October 14, 1882, he was brought to Ireland in 1885 after his father’s death. When de Valera became one of two Easter Rising leaders to receive clemency from their death sentences, some suspected that his American birth had saved him. The real reason, however, was likely the luck of being one of the last scheduled to be killed. By the time of his planned execution date, the British had relented in the wake of the backlash.
Following his clemency, de Valera led the IRB’s political wing, Sinn Féin, and was elected president of the Irish Volunteers, which would come to be known as the Irish Republican Army during the War of Independence. The British sent him back to prison for plotting against them, but he managed to stage a prison break with a culinary twist. De Valera made a waxed impression of a master key taken from the prison chaplain while he celebrated Mass, and IRB accomplices baked the duplicate key inside a cake delivered to him in England’s Lincoln Prison. While Irish girls flirted with the prison guards as a distraction, de Valera used the key to escape the jail.
On the lam, de Valera became president of Ireland’s breakaway parliament and stowed away on a ship in June 1919 to return to the country of his birth in order to raise money and support for the establishment of an Irish Republic. There he would give thanks to the leader of the “men of action” who had preceded him in the fight for freedom.
* * *
Much as Stephens had done several times half a century earlier, de Valera toured the United States in hopes of raising badly needed funds, speaking before thousands of people in Boston, Chicago, and San Francisco. When he arrived in Omaha at the end of October 1919, he passed through the gates of Holy Sepulchre Cemetery and joined the congregation around the fifteen-foot-high granite column that had been christened by locals the “shrine of the Fenians.” Adorned with swords, shamrocks, an Irish harp, and an American eagle, the memorial had been erected by the Emmet Monument Association over the grave of John O’Neill on the crest of the cemetery’s hill.
Incredibly, the idea of an Irish invasion of Canada did not die with O’Neill. While an Irish brigade took up arms against the British during the Boer War in the south of Africa, newspapers printed reports of Fenians amassing in Dunkirk, New York, on the day after Christmas in 1899 to prepare for an invasion of America’s northern neighbor. The report turned out to be baseless, but in April 1900 three Clan na Gael members did dynamite a lock of the Welland Canal in Ontario, causing some damage but not the hoped-for catastrophic flood.
De Valera’s attendance at the monument’s official dedication reflected the important role played by O’Neill and the Fenian Brotherhood in advancing the cause of Irish independence. The Fenian Brotherhood was the first to organize the Irish diaspora into financial and material support that flowed from America to Ireland. It made the United States a player in Anglo-Irish relations, a role that would continue in Northern Ireland, and demonstrated that America could provide Irish republicans with a base of operations beyond the legal reach of the British government.
While O’Neill and his fellow “men of action” could have simply talked about the liberation of Ireland as they luxuriated in their freedom three thousand miles away from the suffering, they instead offered their blood. They left a legacy of freedom on two continents. Many of them had taken up arms in the Union army that liberated African Americans from slavery. They were incidentally responsible for the creation of a new nation; in no small part due to the Fenian raids, Canada gained the right to self-government in 1867, pointing it toward its ultimate independence. Although plagued by naïveté, disunity, and indiscretion, the Fenian Brotherhood was a link in the chain of history that led Irish republicans to ultimately topple the British lion.
De Valera stepped forward in the Holy Sepulchre Cemetery and spoke of O’Neill’s connection to Irish independence. “The Fenian Brotherhood for which General O’Neill fought is the backbone of the Irish republic,” de Valera intoned. “We have vindicated O’Neill by establishing the republic.”
De Valera bent down to place a wreath of roses at the base of the great granite shaft below the words inscribed on O’Neill’s grave marker:
By nature a brave man. By principle a soldier of liberty. He fought with distinction for his adopted country and was ever ready to draw his sword for his native land.
God Save Ireland.
Acknowledgments
While writing can be a solitary endeavor, writing this book would not have been possible without the support of a small army of contributors.
For seven centuries, the Irish people defied attempts to exterminate their culture in part by keeping alive the tales of those who dared to resist. In that vein, I owe a debt of gratitude to previous generations of authors, historians, and scholars who chronicled and preserved the story of the Fenian Brotherhood. Their diligent efforts served as the foundation upon which
this book was constructed.
I owe particular thanks to scores of archivists and librarians. They are the unsung guardians of the knowledge and facts that enlighten our world. Seldom has their work been as vital as it is at this moment in time.
My humble library card served as a remarkable passport to the past. The ability to have books and documents delivered to me from repositories across the United States greatly aided my research. Thank you to Tricia Donnelly and the staff at Memorial Hall Library in my hometown of Andover, Massachusetts, who assisted in fulfilling my numerous interlibrary loan requests. I am also indebted to the volunteers of the Lawrence, Massachusetts, division of the Ancient Order of Hibernians and the staff of the South Lawrence Branch Library who maintain a voluminous collection of books on Irish and Irish American history just down the road.
Thank you as well to the librarians, curators, and archivists of the Allen County Library, Anderson Public Library, Archdiocese of Omaha, Boston Athenaeum, John J. Burns Library at Boston College, Bytown Museum, Catholic University of America, Clogher Historical Society, Diocese of Burlington, Filson Historical Society, Fort Erie Historical Museum, Franklin County (N.Y.) Historical and Museum Society, Franklin (Vt.) Historical Society, Haverhill Public Library, Library and Archives Canada, Library of Congress, Madison County Historical Society, McCord Museum, Minnesota Historical Society, Missouri Historical Society Library and Research Center, Monaghan County Library Services, National Library of Ireland, New York Public Library, Ogdensburg Public Library, Omaha Public Library, St. Albans Free Library, Saint Albans Museum, Santa Clara University, SUNY Plattsburgh, Swem Library at the College of William & Mary, University of Notre Dame, Western Reserve Historical Society, and Wilson’s Creek National Battlefield.
Particular thanks go to Julie Madlin; Tom Fox; Arlene Royea Ayotte of the Brome County Historical Society; Ellen Gressling and Alexandra Mills from Concordia University’s Special Collections; Kathy Flynn and Amita Kiley of the Lawrence History Center; Rolande Laduke of the Missisquoi Historical Society; Tiffany Link and the staff of the Maine Historical Society; and Fiona Anthes, Eric Fernberg, and the staff of the Canadian War Museum.
I’m grateful to Bob Bateman for sharing information on his ancestor Timothy Deasy and to Sheridan Vincent, who provided information on Margaret Vincent and her family. Mary Lynn Rakebrand Sedivec shared ancestral information on John O’Neill. From Ireland, John Makem offered valuable insight into General O’Neill, the O’Neill clan, and the impact of the Great Hunger in County Monaghan and Clontibret.
Natalie Butterfield shared her knowledge about O’Neill, Nebraska, and demonstrated that the Fenian spirit endures in the Cornhusker State. Jeannie Mejstrik was a tremendous help in supplying photographs and archival materials from the O’Neill Public Library. Thanks to both for their sanity checks on my writings about the history of their town. Fellow authors Ellen Alden, Steve Jungmann, and J. M. Erickson also offered their feedback on chapter drafts as well as welcome words of support.
Thanks to the members of the Fenian Brotherhood Emmet Circle of NY & NJ who took the time to answer my questions. In particular, Jim Madden proved a valuable font of knowledge about Fenian firearms and uniforms.
One of the highlights of my research was visiting with Carole Richard on the family’s ancestral farmland along the U.S.-Canada border in Franklin, Vermont. Carole kindly welcomed me into her home to show me artifacts left behind by the retreating Irish Republican Army and gave me a glimpse at the farmhouse from which Alvah Richard twice watched the Fenians invade Canada.
Ireland’s story has always been told in song, and another highlight was attending a concert by Derek Warfield & the Young Wolfe Tones that brought Ireland’s patriotic tunes and revolutionary spirit to life. Derek was very gracious with his time and willingness to share his research on John O’Neill and the Fenian movement.
Thanks to my agent, Katherine Flynn, whose enthusiasm for the idea of a book on the Fenian raids on Canada was a source of great encouragement. Part cheerleader, part therapist, Katherine served as a welcome source of inspiration and calm at my most frenzied moments.
I am deeply indebted to the extraordinarily talented team at Doubleday. Foremost thanks to Yaniv Soha, my editor, for believing in me and in the potential of this project. His patience and steady hand were of great comfort and value. Yaniv’s editorial direction, along with that of Cara Reilly, sharpened my prose and distilled a supersized manuscript to a more manageable narrative without losing any of the vital elements of the story.
Production editor Nora Reichard and the copyediting staff polished the narrative with a careful eye. Any mistakes that remain are mine alone. Kudos to enormously talented designer Michael J. Windsor for his dramatic and colorful jacket, and thanks to the production and marketing teams at Doubleday.
Of course this book would not have been possible without the love, patience, and unwavering support of my family. My children, Drew and Sydney, have been boundless sources of encouragement and flashed their potential as future editors by asking me on a regular basis if I had finally finished the book. The act of writing might not be an easy undertaking but neither is being married to a writer. I had the luck of the Irish in marrying my wife, Erin. She bore the burden without complaint when I was traveling to archives or simply time traveling in my writer’s bunker.
Finally, to generations of Milmoes, Whalens, Turners, and all my ancestors from Ireland who endured famine and hardship before starting a new life in a new country, thank you for your persistence.
Notes
Abbreviations
ACHS: American Catholic Historical Society and maintained at the Catholic Historical Research Center of the Archdiocese of Philadelphia
BCHS: Brome County Historical Society
CUA: Catholic University of America, American Catholic History Research Center and University Archives, Fenian Brotherhood Collection
LAC: Sir John A. Macdonald Fonds, Library and Archives Canada
MHS: Missouri Historical Society, Fenian Brotherhood Papers
NYPL: Thomas William Sweeny Papers, Manuscripts and Archives Division, New York Public Library
PIT: Allen Family Papers, University of Pittsburgh, ULS Archives and Special Collections
Prologue
Wearing green ribbons: Kohler, “For I Never Would Have Surrendered,” 12–13; Buffalo Express, June 1, 1866.
nine wagons laden with secretly stockpiled rifles: Fenian Raid at Fort Erie, 30.
“The governing passion of my life”: Noonan, “General John O’Neill,” 318.
“Canada is a province”: Official Report of Gen. John O’Neill, 3–4.
Chapter 1: The Young Irelanders
An outlaw in his own land: Doheny, Felon’s Track, 138.
The Kilkenny Moderator: Times (London), Aug. 21, 1848.
To further the ruse: James Stephens, Chief Organizer of the Irish Republic, 34.
They laid the casket: Ryan, Fenian Chief, 41–42.
A voracious reader: Ibid., 340.
Covering as many as forty miles a day: Doheny, Felon’s Track, 123–38.
Along his trek: Ibid., 132–43.
Under the Penal Laws: MacManus, Story of the Irish Race, 458–59.
They were permitted to own a knife: Ó Dufaigh, Book of Clontibret, 358.
An eldest son: Plemmons, Fianna, 35.
Even in death: Stern, “How Dagger John Saved New York’s Irish.”
The average adult workingman: Callahan, Emerging Biological Threats, 169.
Because they required less space: Kelly, Graves Are Walking, 8.
When the horror reappeared in 1846: Smith, “Ghosts in Green,” 39.
Frantic farmers sprinkled: Crowley, Atlas of the Great Irish Famine, 30.
Emaciated figures, tire
d of a diet: Kelly, Graves Are Walking, 1–2.
Ireland’s damp conditions: Lee, Making the Irish American, 90.
Jail populations in Ireland exploded: Kelly, Graves Are Walking, 336.
“Irish property must”: Lee, Making the Irish American, 90–91.
The resulting spike in taxes: Kelly, Graves Are Walking, 335.
“Relief ought to be”: Edinburgh Review, Jan. 1848, 314.
“The judgement of God”: Coogan, Famine Plot, 63–64.
Although far more food was imported: Kelly, Graves Are Walking, 310.
“holy war to sweep”: Webb, Compendium of Irish Biography, 341.
After seeing famished children: Mitchel, Last Conquest of Ireland (Perhaps), 148.
By the light of the summertime moon: Ryan, Fenian Chief, 6–8.
On the evening of July 25: Ibid., 7–11.
After the meeting: Ramón, Provisional Dictator, 31.
Although descended from the medieval: Kee, Ireland, 104.
His appeal to O’Brien’s sense: Gwynn, Young Ireland and 1848, 250–51.
Sure enough, as soon as the rebels: Ryan, Fenian Chief, 19.
“General, in the name of Jesus”: Ibid., 23–26.
Stephens and Terence Bellew MacManus: Ryan, Phoenix Flame, 32.
“We are all Irishmen”: Report of the Trial of W. S. O’Brien for High Treason, 432.
“An O’Brien never”: Duffy, “Four Years of Irish History,” 88.
Stephens directed the remaining rebels: Ramón, Provisional Dictator, 36–42.
Stephens crumpled to the ground: James Stephens, Chief Organizer of the Irish Republic, 32.
He was descended from the chieftain: Devoy, Recollections of an Irish Rebel, 266.
When the Irish Invaded Canada Page 32
