19. Samuel Logan, “Prophylactic Effects of Quinine,” Confederate States Medical & Surgical Journal 1 (June 1864): 81–83; Todd, Highlanders, 144 (quotation); Beecher, Connecticut, 169; “The Wee Nee Volunteers of Williamsburg District, South Carolina, in the First (Hagood’s) Regiment, by Major John G. Pressley, of the Eutaw Battalion, South Carolina Volunteers,” in Southern Historical Society Papers (Richmond, Va.: Southern Historical Society, 1888), 16:126–52; “Extracts from the Diary of Lieutenant-Colonel John G. Pressley, of the Twenty-fifth South Carolina Volunteers,” in Southern Historical Society Papers (Richmond: Rev. J. William Jones, D.D., 1886), 14:35–62; T. A. Washington to J. C. Pemberton, April 2, 1862, OR, vol. 6, ser. 1, 423–24.
20. W.H.C. Whiting to Seddon, May 30, 1863, OR, vol. 18, ser. 1, 1081; Mark F. Boyd, “An Historical Sketch of the Prevalence of Malaria in North America,” American Journal of Tropical Medicine 21 (March 1941): 223–44 (quotation); George Worthington Adams, Doctors in Blue: The Medical History of the Union Army in the Civil War (Baton Rouge: Louisiana State University Press, 1980), 243; D. W. Hand, Extracts from Reports Relative to the Operations of the Medical Staff in the Department of North Carolina, from August, 1863, to the Close of the War, in MSH, 2:238–41(quotation); “Medical History of the Seventeenth Regiment Mass. Volunteers,” Boston Medical and Surgical Journal 68 (February 1863): 136–41 (quotation); Thomas H. Parker, History of the 51st Regiment of P.V. and V.V. (Philadelphia: King & Baird, Printers, 1869), 120–25 (quotation); Stanley B. Weld, “A Connecticut Surgeon in the Civil War: The Reminiscences of Dr. Nathan Mayer,” Journal of the History of Medicine and Allied Sciences 19 (July 1964): 272–86 (quotation).
21. The importance of McClellan’s defeat during the Peninsular Campaign cannot be overstated and is best described by the country’s preeminent scholar on the Civil War era, James M. McPherson, who believes “this Confederate success convinced Lincoln to ‘take off the kid gloves’ in dealing with slavery and to adopt emancipation as a means of weakening the Confederacy and strengthening the Union cause.” James M. McPherson, Crossroads of Freedom: Antietam (New York: Oxford University Press, 2002), xvi; OR, vol. 14, ser. 1, 528–49; OR, vol. 28, ser. 1, pt. 2, 444–45; OR, vol. 53, ser. 1, 300; Dan L. Morrill, The Civil War in the Carolinas (Charleston: Nautical & Aviation Publishing Co. of America, 2002), 187.
22. Joseph K. Barnes, The Medical and Surgical History of the War of the Rebellion, 1861–1865. Part First (Washington, D.C.: Government Printing Office, 1870), 55, 192; Steiner, Disease, 75; Robert E. Denney, Civil War Medicine: Care & Comfort of the Wounded (New York: Sterling Publishing, 1994), 174; John H. Dirckx, ed., Stedman’s Concise Medical Dictionary for the Health Professions, 4th ed. (Philadelphia: Lippincott, Williams, & Wilkins, 2001), 159; Adams, Doctors in Blue, 201.
23. Cunningham, Doctors in Gray, 191; Joseph I. Waring, A History of Medicine in South Carolina, 1825–1900 (Charleston: South Carolina Medical Association, 1967), 127–39; Logan, “Prophylactic,” 83; MSH, 5:104–5.
24. O. M. Mitchel to H. W. Halleck, October 24, 1862, OR, vol. 14, ser. 1, 144–47; F. A. Mitchel, Ormsby MacKnight Mitchel, Astronomer and General: A Biographical Narrative (Boston: Riverside Press, 1887), 370; Eicher, Longest, 235; Richard E. Beringer, Herman Hattaway, Archer Jones, and William N. Still Jr., Why the South Lost the Civil War (Athens: University of Georgia Press, 1986), 199–200.
CHAPTER 5: “THE PESTILENT MARSHES OF THE PENINSULA”
1. Darrett B. Rutman and Anita H. Rutman, “Of Agues and Fevers: Malaria in the Early Chesapeake,” William and Mary Quarterly 33 (January 1976): 31–60; Wyndham B. Blanton, Medicine in Virginia in the Nineteenth Century (Richmond, Va.: Garrett & Massie, 1933), 258–59; J. Bankhead Magruder to S. Cooper, August 21, 1861, The War of the Rebellion: A Compilation of the Official Records of the Union and Confederate Armies, vol. 51, ser. 1, pt. 2, 246, hereafter referred to as OR.
2. Regis De Trobriand, Four Years with the Army of the Potomac (Boston: Ticknor & Co., 1889), 221–36 (quotation); J. Theodore Calhoun, “The Chickahominy and Seven Pines,” Medical and Surgical Reporter 9 (March 1863): 399–400 (quotation); Francis J. Parker, The Story of the Thirty-second Regiment Massachusetts Infantry (Boston: C. W. Calkins & Co., 1880), 51–57 (quotation); William Child, A History of the Fifth Regiment New Hampshire Volunteers (Bristol: R. W. Musgrove Printer, 1893), 60–96 (quotation).
3. Thomas P. Lowry, ed., Swamp Doctor: The Diary of a Union Surgeon in the Virginia and North Carolina Marshes (Mechanicsburg, Pa.: Stackpole Books, 2001), 226 (quotation); George Worthington Adams, Doctors in Blue: The Medical History of the Union Army in the Civil War (Baton Rouge: Louisiana State University Press, 1980), 71; OR, vol. 11, ser. 1, pt. 1, 201–2; Calhoun, “Chickahominy,” 399–400; Paul E. Steiner, Disease in the Civil War: Natural Biological Warfare in 1861–1865 (Springfield, Ill.: Charles C. Thomas, 1968), 108; G. W. Randolph to A. T. Bledsoe, August 26, 1861, OR, 51, ser. 1, pt. 2, 251.
4. Dale C. Smith, “The Rise and Fall of Typhomalarial Fever: I. Origins,” Journal of the History of Medicine and Allied Sciences 37 (April 1982): 182–220; Frank R. Freemon, Gangrene and Glory: Medical Care during the American Civil War (Chicago: University of Illinois Press, 1998), 70; Steiner, Disease, 124–25; Alfred Jay Bollet, Civil War Medicine: Challenges and Triumphs (: Galen Press, 2002), 276–77.
5. OR, vol. 11, ser. 1, pt. 1, 82–84, 181, 210–20; Steiner, Disease, 124; Jonathan Letterman, Medical Recollections of the Army of the Potomac (1866; rpt., Bohemian Brigade Publishers, 1994), 6–14; James McPherson, Battle Cry of Freedom: The Civil War Era (New York: Ballantine Books, 1988), 525; OR, vol. 11, ser. 1, pt. 3, 313–14, 331–33; George Meade, The Life and Letters of George Gordon Meade, Major-General United States Army (New York: Charles Scribner’s Sons, 1913), 302–3.
6. Many blacks developed a limited immunity to the local malarial parasites in their neighborhoods through repeated infections and/or possessed “innate immunities based on inherited hemoglobin variants.” Nineteenth-century physicians noticed that blacks were less likely to die from yellow fever. Modern historians disagree over the causes of this immunity. Some believe people of African descent inherited a genetic resistance to yellow fever, while others argue that blacks’ frequent contact with the disease in southern towns gave them acquired immunity. Margaret Humphreys, Intensely Human: The Health of the Black Soldier in the American Civil War (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 2008), 49–50, 84–85 (quotation).
7. OR, vol. 16, ser. 1, pt. 2, 62–63; McPherson, Battle Cry, 488–89.
8. H. H. Cunningham, Doctors in Gray: The Confederate Medical Service (Baton Rouge: Louisiana State University Press, 1958), 157, 191; Medical Department Register of Patients, General Hospital No. 21. Richmond, Virginia, 1862. Chapter VI, Volume 253, Record Group 109, National Archives, Washington, D.C.; Medical Department [Confederate] Register of Patients, General Hospital No. 18 Richmond, Virginia, 1862–1863. Chapter VI, Volume 217½, Record Group 109, National Archives, Washington, D.C.; Herbert M. Nash, M.D., “Some Reminiscences of a Confederate Surgeon,” Transactions of the College of Physicians of Philadelphia 28 (Philadelphia: printed for the College, 1906): 122–44 (quotation).
9. See Bruce Catton, Grant Moves South (Boston: Little, Brown, 1960); R. E. Lee to James A. Seddon, May 10, 1863, OR, vol. 25, ser. 1, pt. 2, 790; Chicago Times article reprinted in Wilmington Journal, September 4, 1862.
10. McPherson, Battle Cry, 517; Frank R. Freemon, M.D., “The Medical Challenge of Military Operations in the Mississippi Valley during the American Civil War,” Military Medicine 157 (September 1992): 494–97; OR, vol. 24, ser. 1, pt. 3, 357–58; Report of Surgeon Madison Mills, June 20, 1863, United States Sanitary Commission Records, ser. 7: Statistical Bureau Archives, Camp Inspection Returns, 1861–64, Manuscript Division, Library of Congress; Captain Joseph Edward King, “Shoulder Straps for Aesculapius: The Vicksburg Campaign, 1863,” Military Surgeon 114 ( March 1954), 216–26; T. H. Barton, Autobiography of Dr. Thomas H. Barton, the Self
-Made Physician of Syracuse, Ohio, Including a History of the Fourth Regt. West Va. Vol. Infy. (Charleston: West Virginia Printing Co., 1890), 151.
11. For more information on Grant’s attempt to finish Williams’s canal, see David F. Bastian, Grant’s Canal: The Union Attempt to Bypass Vicksburg (Shippensburg, Pa.: Burd Street Press, 1995); Freemon, “Medical Challenge,” 495; Frank R. Freemon, M.D., “Medical Care at the Siege of Vicksburg, 1863,” Bulletin of the New York Academy of Medicine 67 (September–October 1991): 429–38; H. S. Hewitt to Madison Mills, March 16, 1863, United States Sanitary Commission Records, ser. 7: Statistical Bureau Archives, Camp Inspection Returns, 1861–64, Manuscript Division, Library of Congress, Washington, D.C. (quotation); Granville P. Conn, History of the New Hampshire Surgeons in the War of the Rebellion (Concord, N.H.: Ira C. Evans Co., Printers, 1906), 209 (quotation); Lewis Crater, History of the Fiftieth Regiment, Penna. Vet. Vols., 1861–65. (Reading, Pa.: Coleman Printing House, 1884), 42 (quotation); A. J. Withrow to Libertatia Withrow, June 3, 1863, Withrow Papers, University of North Carolina, Chapel Hill (quotation); Charles F. Larimer, ed., Love and Valor: Intimate Civil War Letters between Captain Jacob and Emeline Ritner (Western Springs, Ill.: Sigourney Press, 2000), 173–74 (quotation); Thomas H. Parker, History of the 51st Regiment of P.V. and V.V. (Philadelphia: King & Baird Printers, 1869), 322.
12. Freemon, “Medical Care,” 432; George C. Osborn, ed., “A Tennessean at the Siege of Vicksburg: The Diary of Samuel Alexander Ramsey Swan, May–July, 1863,” Tennessee Historical Quarterly 14 (December 1955): 353–72; Rev. Albert Theodore Goodloe, Confederate Echoes: A Voice from the South in the Days of Secession and of the Southern Confederacy (Nashville: Smith & Lamar, 1907), 248–49; Kenneth Trist Urquhart, ed., Vicksburg, Southern City under Siege: William Lovelace Foster’s Letter Describing the Defense and Surrender of the Confederate Fortress on the Mississippi (New Orleans: Historic New Orleans Collection, 1980), 35.
13. Some historians have suggested that Lee was either ignorant of the conditions in the Deep South or using the “sickly season” as an excuse to swell the size of the army protecting his native Virginia. But this theory ignores his prewar experience as an army engineer in coastal Georgia and the fact that many other Civil War commanders, both Union and Confederate, shared his assessment of the southern climate. See Richard M. McMurry, “Marse Robert and the Fevers: A Note on the General as Strategist and on Medical Ideas as a Factor in Civil War Decision Making,” Civil War History 35 (September 1989): 197–207; Lee to Seddon, June 8, 1863, OR, vol. 27, ser. 1, pt. 3, 868–69; Seddon to W. Porcher Miles, May 13, 1863, OR, vol. 14, ser. 1, 940; Edward Younger, Inside the Confederate Government: The Diary of Robert Garlick Hill Kean, Head of the Bureau of War (New York: Oxford University Press, 1957), 63; Beauregard to Seddon, May 11, 1863, OR, vol. 14, ser. 1, 933–35.
14. Leon F. Litwack, Been in the Storm So Long: The Aftermath of Slavery (New York: Vintage Books, 1979), 67–70; Martha M. Bigelow, “The Significance of Milliken’s Bend in the Civil War,” Journal of Negro History 45 (July 1960): 156–63 (quotation); OR, vol. 24, ser. 1, pt. 3, 156–57 (quotation); “The Week,” American Medical Times 7, August 8, 1863, 65–66 (quotation); William A. Hammond, A Treatise on Hygiene with Special Reference to the Military Service (1863; rpt., San Francisco: Norman Publishing, 1991), ix–x, 70 (quotation); Willie Lee Rose, Rehearsal for Reconstruction: The Port Royal Experiment (London: Oxford University Press, 1964), xvi; Humphreys, Intensely Human, 45, 105.
15. The Medical and Surgical History of the Civil War (Wilmington, N.C.: Broadfoot Publishing Co., 1991), 5:85 (quotations), hereafter referred to as MSH.
16. S. M. Barton to C. L. Stevenson, July 1, 1863, OR, vol. 24, ser. 1, pt. 2, 347.
17. A. Cumming to C. L. Stevenson & A. W. Reynolds to C. L. Stevenson, July 1, 1863, OR, vol. 24, ser. 1, pt. 2, 348–49; Freemon, “Medical Care,” 434; John C. Pemberton, Pemberton: Defender of Vicksburg (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1942), 222–24; Judith Lee Hallock, “‘Lethal and Debilitating’: The Southern Disease Environment as a Factor in the Confederate Defeat,” Journal of Confederate History 7 (1991): 51–61.
18. Freemon, Gangrene, 225; Freemon, “Medical Challenge,” 495;William T. Sherman, General Orders, No. 69, August 30, 1863, OR, vol. 30, ser. 1, pt. 3, 225–26 (quotation); Report of Medical Inspector E.O.F. Roler, September 27, 1863, United States Sanitary Commission Records, ser. 7: Statistical Bureau Archives, Camp Inspection Returns, 1861–64, Manuscript Division, Library of Congress, Washington, D.C.
19. J. H. Clarke, “Yellow Fever in New Orleans,” Boston Medical and Surgical Journal 59, November 12, 1863, 303–4; H. H. Bell to N. P. Banks, October 23, 1863, Official Records of the Union and Confederate Navies in the War of the Rebellion, vol. 20, ser. 1, 638, 650–52 (quotation), hereafter referred to as ORN; ORN, vol. 25, ser. 1, 461–62; Jo Ann Carrigan, “Yankees versus Yellow Jack in New Orleans, 1862–1866,” Civil War History 9 (September 1963): 256.
20. Clarke, “Yellow Fever,” 303; ORN 20, ser. 1, 603; Hospital Tickets and Case Papers, Naval Hospital, New Orleans, 1863, Record Group 52, National Archives (quotation); Naval Hospital New Orleans, La., Hospital Tickets and Case Papers, 1863, Record Group 52, National Archives, Washington, D.C.
21. B. F. Gibbs, “Account of the Epidemic of Yellow Fever Which Visited Pensacola Navy Yard in the Summer and Autumn of 1863,” American Journal of the Medical Sciences 61 (1866): 340–51; George F. Pearce, Pensacola during the Civil War (Gainesville: University Press of Florida, 2000), 193; William C. Holbrook, A Narrative of the Services of the Officers and Enlisted Men of the 7th Regiment of Vermont Volunteers (New York: American Bank Note Co., 1882), 134–35 (quotation).
22. H. H. Bell to John P. Gillis, September 11, 1863, ORN, vol. 20, ser. 1, 509–10, 566–67 (quotation), 581–83, 637–38, 708; ORN, vol. 21, ser. 1, 240–43, 284, 328, 679, 692; ORN, vol. 27, ser. 1, 595–96; Holbrook, Narrative, 134–35 (quotation); letter to Louis James M. Boyd, November 5, 1863, Louis James M. Boyd Papers, State Archives of Florida, Tallahassee (quotation); Jo Ann Carrigan, “Yankees versus Yellow Jack in New Orleans, 1862–1866,” Civil War History 9 (September 1963): 256; Elisha Harris, M.D., “Hygiene Experience in New Orleans during the War: Illustrating the Importance of Efficient Sanitary Regulations,” Southern Medical and Surgical Journal 21 (July 1866): 86; Jo Ann Carrigan, The Saffron Scourge: A History of Yellow Fever in Louisiana, 1796–1905 (Lafayette: Center for Louisiana Studies, University of Southwestern Louisiana, 1994), 82.
23. See Allan Nevins, The War for the Union: The Improvised War, 1861–1862 (New York: Charles Scribner’s Sons, 1959); and The War for the Union: The Organized War, 1863–1864 (New York: Charles Scribner’s Sons, 1971); Adams, Doctors, 31–34; Bollett, Medicine, 236–37.
CHAPTER 6: “THE ROUGHEST TIMES ANY SET OF SOLDIERS EVER ENCOUNTERED”
1. Reid Mitchell, The American Civil War, 1861–1865 (Harlow, Eng.: Pearson Education, 2001), 56; Charles W. Johnson, “Narrative of the Sixth Regiment” (1891), in Minnesota in the Civil and Indian Wars, 1861–1865 by Minnesota Board of Commissioners on Publication of History of Minnesota in Civil and Indian Wars (St. Paul, Minn.: Pioneer Press Co., 1890–93), 300–328 (quotation); Charles H. Lothrop, M.D., A History of the First Regiment Iowa Cavalry Veteran Volunteers (Lyons, Iowa: Beers & Eaton, 1890), 130; Illinois at Vicksburg (published under the authority of an act of the Forty-fifth General Assembly by the Illinois-Vicksburg Military Park Commission, 1907), Library of Congress, Washington, D.C., 141–312; E. B. Quiner, The Military History of Wisconsin (Chicago: Clarke & Co., Publishers, 1866), 760–66; C. C. Andrews, “Narrative of the Third Regiment,” in Johnson, Minnesota, 165–67; Frederick Steele to John Schofield, September 12, 1863, The War of the Rebellion: A Compilation of the Official Records of the Union and Confederate Armies, vol. 22, ser. 1, pt. 1, 474–77, hereafter referred to as OR (quotation).
2. John Scott, Story of the Thirty-second Iowa Infantry Volunteers (Nevada, Iowa: John Scott
, 1896), 59; Shelby Foote, The Civil War: A Narrative (New York: Vintage Books, 1986), 2:702; A. F. Sperry, History of the 33d Iowa Infantry Volunteer Regiment, 1863–6 (Des Moines: Mills & Co., 1866), 37–41 (quotation).
3. Frederick Steele to Stephen A. Hurlbut, August 23, 1863, Steele to John Schofield, September 1, 1863, OR, vol. 22, ser. 1, pt. 1, 472–74; Leander Stillwell, The Story of a Common Soldier of Army Life in the Civil War, 1861–1865, 2nd ed. ([Erie, Kan.]: Franklin Hudson Publishing Co., 1920), 157–58 (quotation).
4. Joseph R. Smith to J. K. Barnes, January 20, 1866, Sanitary Report of the Army of Arkansas for the Last Quarter of 1863, U.S. Surgeon General’s Office, History of Medicine Division, National Library of Medicine, Bethesda, Md. (quotation); The Medical and Surgical History of the Civil War (Wilmington, N.C.: Broadfoot Publishing Co., 1991), 2:343–46 (quotation), hereafter referred to as MSH.
5. Scott, Iowa, 59–61; Sperry, 33d Iowa, 42–43 (quotation); Frederick Steele to H. W. Halleck, September 12, 1863, OR, vol. 22, ser. 1, pt. 1, 474–82 (quotation); Paul E. Steiner, Disease in the Civil War: Natural Biological Warfare in 1861–1865 (Springfield, Ill.: Charles C. Thomas, 1968), 218–19.
6. H. W. Halleck to E.R.S. Canby, November 12, 1864, OR, vol. 41, ser. 1, pt. 4, 529 (quotation); F. Steele to J. M. Thayer, November 12, 1864, OR, vol. 41, ser. 1, pt. 4, 535; “Report of Troops Serving in the Department of Arkansas,” October 31, 1864, OR, vol. 41, ser. 1, pt. 4, 341; Steiner, Disease, 219.
7. See Surgeon Eugene F. Sanger, “Extracts from the Report of the Medical Director of the Nineteenth Corps, for April, 1864,” in The Medical and Surgical History of the War of the Rebellion (1861–1865) (Washington, D.C.: Government Printing Office, 1870), 335.
8. Confederate successes kept Steele from reinforcing General Nathaniel Banks, who also suffered a humiliating loss during the Red River Campaign of 1864. A. C. Wedge quoted in C. C. Andrews, “Narrative of the Third,” in Minnesota, 174–75; Christopher C. Andrews, Pioneer in Forestry Conservation in the United States: For Sixty Years a Dominant Influence in the Public Affairs of Minnesota: Lawyer: Editor: Diplomat: General in the Civil War. Recollections: 1829–1922, ed. Alice E. Andrews (Cleveland: Arthur H. Clark Co., 1928), 191 (quotation); Stephen Miller to E.R.S. Canby, April 4, 1865, OR, vol. 48, ser. 1, pt. 2, 31–32.
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