conic section, 40, 194, 235, 237
ellipse and, 318–19
parabolas and, 344–45
conservation of energy, 340–41
conservation of momentum, 197, 235, 362–63
Constantine I, emperor of Rome, 48, 49
Constantinople, 104, 253
constellations, 56–57Copernicus, Nicolaus, 72, 134, 141, 146, 307
Arabs and, 107, 117
astronomers’ reception of, 157–58
Descartes and, 204
Francis Bacon and, 201
Galileo and, 173, 177–79, 181–88
Kepler and, 162–63, 166–73, 255
Newton and, 237n, 251
planetary motion and, 48–49, 85–86, 90–91, 95, 117–18, 124, 141n, 148–63, 172, 228, 240
Ptolemaic theory and, 304–7, 325
relative sizes of planetary orbits and, 320–21
religious opposition to, 155–57, 181, 184–88, 213
Tycho’s alternative to, 158–61
Córdoba, 112, 114, 123
Cosimo II di Medici, 178
cosine, 296, 309, 313
cosmic rays, 263
counter-Earth, 78
Crease, R. P., 381
Cremonini, Cesare, 173, 180
Crombie, A. C., 137, 375
Ctesibius, 35, 41
cube, 10, 12, 17, 162, 163n, 275, 278–79
cubic equations, 109
Cutler, Sir John, 220
Cuvier, Georges, 265
Cyril of Alexandria, 50–51
d’Alembert, Jean, 248
Dalton, John, 11, 259
Damascus, 104, 117, 118
dark energy, 83, 165, 265
dark matter, 9, 264
Darwin, Charles, 24, 172, 200, 248, 265–66, 383
days of the week, 77n
De analysi per aequationes number terminorum infinitas (Newton), 224
Dear, Peter, 125, 269, 373, 380
deduction, xv, 19–21, 132, 164, 189, 197, 201–3, 205, 247, 264–65, 289
deferents, 88–92, 93, 97, 110, 149, 150, 160, 180, 303–6, 324–24
Demetrius of Phaleron, 32
Democritus, 7, 11–14, 44, 46–47, 65, 110–11, 260
De Motu (On Motion) (Galileo), 173
density
of Earth vs. water 240
Newton and, 232
De Revolutionibus (Copernicus), 153–58, 183–84
derivative, 223
Descartes, René, 37, 40, 141, 194, 201, 202–14, 218, 223, 229, 236, 246, 248, 342, 346–48
Descartes’ law, 37, 207
Dialogue Concerning the Two Chief Systems of the World (Galileo), 185–87, 193, 199
Dialogue Concerning Two New Sciences (Galileo), 190, 193–94
Dicks, D. R., 373
Dietrich of Freiburg, 128, 209
diffraction, 205, 222
Diogenes Laertius, 4, 44, 57, 63
Dionysius II, of Syracuse, 10, 18
Diophantus, 40, 107
Dioscorides, 105
Dirac, Paul, 152, 261–62, 383
Discourse on Bodies in Water (Galileo), 181, 190
Discourse on Light (al-Haitam), 110
Discourse on Method (Descartes), 203, 205, 212–13
displacement, 38–39, 292–93
DNA, 266
dodecahedron, 10, 12, 162, 163n, 275, 279
Dominicans, 127–30, 140
Donne, John, vii, 42
Doppler effect, 221
Doubts concerning Galen (al-Razi), 111
Drake, S., 378, 379
Dreyer, J. L. E., 84
Droysen, Johann Gustav, 31
Duhem, Pierre, 99, 146, 260, 378
Duns Scotus (Johannes Scotus Erigena, John the Scot), 225
Earth
Aristotle on, 24–25, 49, 64–66, 70–71, 132, 143
axis of rotation, 58, 148, 152–53, 302
axis wobble of, 74–75
Copernicus on, 86, 95, 148–56
density of, 240
distance to Moon, 63, 66–68, 70, 72–73, 75, 83, 295–301
distance to planets, 149–50
distance to stars, 70
distance to Sun, 63, 66–68, 70, 75, 83, 90, 164, 295–301
epicycles of planets and, 303–7
Eratosthenes on, 75–76, 301–2
Galileo on, 184–88
Greeks on motion of, 10, 70–72, 79–86, 89, 153–54
Heraclides on, 89
medieval Europe and motion of planets around, 124, 132, 136, 143
moon as satellite of, 178, 181, 363 (see also Moon)
motion around Sun, debated, 89, 95, 143
Newton and ratio of masses of Sun and, 239
orbit of, circular vs. elliptical, 53, 59, 91, 152
orbit of, eccentricity, 167, 324
orbit of, Kepler on, 162, 166–67
orbit of, speed, 59, 152
precession of orbit, al-Zarqali measures, 113–14
Ptolemy on motion of planets around, 88–92, 94–95, 143, 324–25
Pythagoreans on motion of, 72, 78, 151, 153–54
relative speed of Jupiter and, 221–22
rotation of, 70–71, 85–86, 108, 134–36, 148, 151, 153–54, 241, 246
shape of, Descartes and, 204
shape of, equatorial bulge, 153
shape of, flat, 65, 78
shape of, oblate, 241, 246
shape of, spherical, 49, 63–66
sidereal period and, 171
size of, 53, 63, 65n, 67–68, 70, 75–76, 107–9, 228n, 301–2, 311–13, 362
tides and, 184–85
earth, as element, 6, 10, 12, 64–66, 259
Easter, date of, 60–61
eccentricity, 167–69, 317–19, 324
eccentrics, 87–88, 91–95, 98, 112, 142, 151–53, 166, 169, 254
eclipses
lunar, 59, 63–64, 94, 298
planets, 94
solar, 4, 63, 66–67, 72–73, 83, 94, 298
ecliptic, 57, 73–74, 177
Ecphantus, 153
Egypt, xiv, 1, 4, 7, 31–33, 46, 55, 104–5, 116. See also Alexandria
Einstein, Albert, 34, 172, 204n, 222–23, 248–53, 260–61
electromagnetism, 250, 257–64
electrons, 9, 34, 180, 247, 257, 260–64
electroweak theory, 263–64
elementary particles, 9, 11, 14, 21, 180, 247, 249, 262–63, 267
elements
alchemists on, 11
Aristotle on, 10, 64–66
chemical, identified, 11, 259
Greeks on four, 6, 10, 12
medieval Europe and, 125
Plato on, 10, 18, 45
Elements (Euclid), 15, 17–19, 35, 47, 51, 69, 126, 223, 232, 275, 285
Elizabeth I, queen of England, 170, 257
ellipses, 40, 167, 235, 255, 316–19
foci of, 167, 316, 318
parabola and, 343
elliptical orbits of planets, 117–18, 167, 231, 324–28
Empedocles, 6–7, 10, 12, 45, 111
empiricism, 132–33, 201–2, 253
Encke’s comet, 250
Epicurus of Samos, 22, 46, 48
epicycles, xv, 87, 91n, 98, 254
Arabs and, 110, 112, 117
Copernicus and, 151–53, 182
equal-angles and equants and, 324–25
inner and outer planets and, 303–7
Kepler and, 166
medieval Europe and, 141–42
Ptolemaic model and, 88–95, 97–98, 149–53, 155, 168, 254–55
Tycho and, 160
Epitome of Copernican Astronomy (Kepler), 168
Epitome of the Almagest (Regiomontanus), 141
equal-angles rule, 36–37, 208–10, 221, 290
equal-area rule, 168–69, 231, 323–28
equant, 87, 92–95, 117, 151–52, 166, 169, 254, 323–28
equinoxes, 58, 60–61
precession of, 74–75, 107, 118, 153, 241–42, 244, 248
> Eratosthenes, 51, 75–76, 107, 301–2
ether, 10, 258
Euclid, 15, 17–19, 35, 37, 47, 51, 69, 105, 119, 126, 206, 210, 223, 232, 272, 275–77, 285
Euctemon, 59–60, 81, 152
Eudoxus, 18–19, 51, 80–87, 95, 97, 142
Euler characteristic, 278
Europa, 177–78
Europe, medieval, 1, 105, 124–43
scientific revolution and, 253
Eusebius, bishop of Caesarea, 58
evolution, 24, 164–65, 265–66
experiment, xv, 255
Aristotle and, 29
Descartes and, 204, 208–9, 213
development of, 189–202
Galileo and, 192–94, 200, 213
Greeks and, 24, 29, 35, 69
Huygens and, 195–97
hypothesis and, 213
medicine and, 41–43
medieval Europe and, 133, 137
Newton and, 218–19
prediction and, 146
explanation, description vs., xiii, 99
falling bodies
Aristotle and, 25–29, 51, 64–66, 71, 129, 133, 173, 190
da Vinci and, 202
Descartes and, 204
Earth’s rotation and, 135
experiments with inclined planes, 192–94, 200, 339–43
falling drops, 33, 288–89
Galileo and, 173, 190–94, 200, 213, 240, 339–46
Greeks and, 25–27, 33
Huygens and, 195–96, 342
mean speed theorem and, 140
medieval Europe and, 135–37, 140
Moon’s orbit and, 228–30, 235, 242, 361–62
Newton and, 190, 225–26, 228–30, 235, 242, 245
Oresme and, 136–37
terminal velocity and, 25–26, 286–88
thrown objects (projectile), 27, 51, 71, 133–35, 156, 161, 170, 194, 342–46
Tycho and, 161
Fantoli, A., 378
Faraday, Michael, 258
Fermat, Pierre de, 37, 208, 221, 331, 348, 358
fermions, 263
field concept, 21, 250, 262
fine-tuning, 82–83, 85–86, 89–90, 149–51, 155, 255
Finocchiaro, M. A., 378
fire
Boyle and, 200
as element, 6, 10, 12, 64, 259
Lavoisier and, 259
first mover, doctrine of, 26
first principles, 27, 97
Fitzgerald, Edward, 109
floating and submerged bodies, 38–39, 181, 291–94
fluxion. See derivative
focal length, 174–75, 329–33, 336
focus. See also ellipse, focii of
planet’s orbit around, 59, 151–52, 167–68
forces, Newton and concept of, 233, 257. See also specific forces
Formation of Shadows, The (al-Haitam), 110
Foscarini, Paolo Antonio, 182–84
Fourier analysis, 280
Fracastoro, Girolomo, 141–42, 186
Franciscans, 127, 129, 138
Frederick II, king of Denmark, 159, 161
Freeman, K., 367
Ferdinando I, grand duke of Tuscany, 183
frequency, 279–82
Fulbert of Chartres, 126
fundamental principles, 99, 163–65, 203–4
galaxies
first observation of, 108
relative velocity and, 359
Galen, 42, 105, 111, 126
Galileo Galilei, 106, 134, 202, 216
astrology and, 146
Boyle and, 199
comets and, 40n, 182, 205
conflict with church and trial of, 181–88, 190, 213
church’s rehabilitation of, 187
Descartes and, 204
falling bodies and, 173, 190–97, 200, 240, 339–42
floating bodies and, 181, 190
geometry and, 40–41
Huygens and, 194–95
Jupiter’s moons and, 177–78
Kepler and, 173, 179–81
Moons’ surface and, 175–76, 228, 337–39
pendulum and, 191, 195
phases of Venus and, 87, 143, 154, 179–80, 204
planetary system and orbit of Earth around Sun, 72, 172–88, 199, 204, 212
projectiles and, 193–95, 213, 342–46
Saturn and, 194
stars vs. planets and, 176–77
sunspots and, 180–83
telescope and, 79, 174–80, 219, 329–33, 336
tides and, 184–85, 205
Tycho and, 186
vacuum and, 198
Galison, Peter, 204n, 381
Ganymede (moon of Jupiter), 177–78
Garden of Epicurus, 22, 46–47
Gassendi, Pierre, 46, 234
Geminus, 95–97, 157, 246
general theory of relativity, 14, 234, 250–53
genetics, 266
Geographic Memoirs (Eratosthenes), 75
Geometrie (Descartes), 223
geometry, xiv, 125, 139, 197, 199
algebra vs., 40–41
analytic, 40, 205–7
Galileo and, 40–41
Greeks and, 4, 15–20, 35, 39–40, 67
mean speed theorem and, 139, 313–15
Newton and, 236, 246
Platonic solids and, 274–79
Pythagorean theorem, 283–84
Thales and, 4, 272–74
Gerard of Cremona, 126–27
Gibbon, Edward, 47, 48, 51–52
Gilbert, William, 170, 257
Gingerich, O., 269, 377, 378, 379
gluons, 264–65
gnomon, 58, 75, 79, 81, 180
God
Descartes and, 203
first mover argument for, 26
freedom of, and science, 130–31
Newton and, 146, 247
void and, 26
gold, 8, 39, 41, 110
Goldstein, B. R., 376
“Good Morrow, The” (Donne), 42
Graham, David, 371
Grassi, Orazio, 182
gravitation, 264. See also falling bodies
Aristotle and, 66, 286
curved space-time and, 252
Earth’s bulge and, 153
Galileo and acceleration due to, 193, 196, 240, 339–42
general relativity and, 251–53
Hooke and, 230–31
Huygens and acceleration due to, 195–96, 212
Huygens’ criticism of, 246
inverse square law of, 227, 230, 237
Kepler and, 169, 171
laboratory masses and, 240
Moon’s motion and, 93, 196, 228
Newton and, 99, 196, 212, 225–31, 236–47, 250–54, 257, 286–87, 363–65
Oresme and, 136–37
planetary orbits and, 53, 93, 134, 148, 169, 171, 212, 225–28, 363–65
planetary orbits and falling bodies, 228–31, 236–37
precession of Earth’s orbit and, 113–14
precession of the equinoxes and, 74, 241–42
sidereal period and Kepler’s third law, 171
Standard Model forces and, 264, 268
Sun’s and planetary orbits, Kepler and, 169
terminal velocity and, 286–87
tides and, 185, 242–43
wobble of Earth’s axis and, 74–75
gravitational field, 250–52, 263
Greeks. See also Aristotle; Plato; and other specific individuals and theories
Arabs and, 101, 104–5, 108, 111, 121, 126–27
Classical vs. Hellenistic age vs., 31–34
Dorian, 6, 12
Ionian, 3–10, 63
mathematics and, 15–21, 40
matter and, xiv, 3–14
measurement of Earth, Sun, and Moon, 63–77
medieval Europe and, 101, 124, 126–27, 129, 137
motion and, 22–30
planets and, 77–101
poetry and, 12–13
religion and, 44–47
&nb
sp; spherical shape of Earth and, 63–66
Green, Peter, 369
Greenblatt,Stephen, 46, 370
Gregory IX, Pope, 127
Gregory XIII, Pope, 61, 158
Grimaldi, Francesco Maria, 222
Grosseteste, Robert, 137–38
Guide to the Perplexed (Maimonides), 114
Gutas, Dimitri, 105, 374
Halley, Edmund, 231, 244, 247, 250
Halo and the Rainbow, The (al-Haitam), 110
Handy Tables (Ptolemy), 114
Hankinson, R. J., 23, 269, 369
Harmonices mundi (Kepler), 170–71
harmony, 279–82
Harriot, Thomas, 207
Hartley, L. P., xii
Hartmann, Georg, 141n
heat, 259–60, 267
Heath, Thomas, 84, 370, 372, 374
heavens, changeability of, 159–60, 173, 228
Heaviside, Oliver, 258n
Heidelberg, University of, 140
Heilbron, J. L., 378
Heisenberg, Werner, 261
heliocentricism, 70–72, 118, 155–58, 172. See also Copernicus; Sun
Hellenistic period, xv, 1, 31–43, 46–48, 53, 87, 99, 160. See also Alexandria; and specific individuals
fluid statics and, 38–39
light and, 35–36
technology and, 34–41
Henry of Hesse, 142
Henry VII, king of England, 253
Heraclides, 85–86, 89, 124, 134, 153, 303
Heraclitus, 6, 8, 13, 57
Heraclius, Byzantine emperor, 103
Hermes (Eratosthenes), 75
Herodotus, 45–46, 58
Hero of Alexandria, 36–37, 41, 51, 137, 189, 208, 210, 289–91, 348
Hertz, Heinrich, 259
Hesiod, 13, 47, 55–56
Heytesbury, William of, 138–39
Hipparchus, xv, 48, 51, 72–75, 87–90, 93–94, 97, 107, 137, 142, 153, 159, 254
Hippasus, 17
Hippocrates, 42, 105, 111, 119, 121
Hippolytus, 63
hippopede, 81
Hisah al-Jabr w-al-Muqabalah (al-Khwarizmi), 106–7
History of Ancient Mathematical Astronomy, A (Neugebauer), 64n
History of the Warfare of Science with Theology in Christendom, A (White), 155
Hitti, Philip, 105, 374
Holton, G., 383
Homer, 6n, 13, 55–56
homocentric models, 80–87, 95, 97, 98, 112–13, 128, 142, 153, 160, 185–86
Hooke, Robert, 200, 217, 220, 230–31, 245
Horace, 99n
horizon
curve of Earth and, 65
measuring Earth with, 108–9, 311–13
Horologium oscillatorium (Huygens), 195, 197
Huff, Toby, 374
Hugh Capet, king of France, 126
Hulegu Khan, 116
Hunt, Bruce, 269, 370
humors, four, 42–43, 111
Hunayn ibn Ishq, 104–5
Hussein, grandson of Muhammad, 104
Hutchinson, John, 245, 246
Huygens, Christiaan, 36, 194–97, 208, 212–13, 217, 220, 226–27, 234, 341–42, 356, 358–60
acceleration due to gravity and falling bodies, 195–96
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