centrifugal force and, 226, 227
centripetal acceleration and, 212, 360
constant g and acceleration, 342
pendulum clock and, 195
Saturn’s moon Titan and, 195
speed of light and, 359
wave theory of light and, 36, 196–97, 208, 356, 358
hydrogen, 11, 152, 259
hydrostatics, 33, 189, 190
Hypatia, 51
Hypotyposes orbium coelestium (Peucer), 158
Ibn al-Nafis, 118
Ibn al-Shatir, 117, 151, 237n
Ibn Bajjah (Avempace), 112, 115
Ibn Rushd (Averroes), 27, 112–13, 115, 117, 119, 121, 128, 130
Ibn Sahl, 110, 207
Ibn Sina (Avicenna), 111–12, 116, 120, 126
Ibn Tufayl (Abubacer), 112, 115
icosahedron, 10, 12, 162, 163n, 275, 279
Iliad (Homer), 47
impact parameter b, 209–11
impetus, 51, 133–34, 212. See also momentum
Incoherence of Incoherence (Ibn Rushd), 121
Incoherence of the Philosophers, The (al-Ghazali), 121
incommensurable lines, 12, 285
index of refraction (n), 206–8, 210–12, 331–32, 348, 351, 355
India, xiv, 1, 57, 104, 107–8, 116, 207
infinite series, 8, 223, 226
infinitesimals, 223, 224n, 231–32, 236
Innocent IV, Pope, 129
intelligent design, 44
Inventions of the Philosophers (al-Ghazali), 121
inverse square law of gravitation, 227–31, 235, 237
Io (moon of Jupiter), 177–78, 221–22, 359
irrational numbers, 17–18, 284–86
Isfahan, 108–10
Islam, xiv, 26, 101–23
science vs. religion and, 118–23, 131, 188
Sunni vs. Shiite, 104
Jabir ibn Hayyan, 110–11, 218n
Jardine, N., 376
Jefferson, Thomas, 46–47
Jesuits, 40n, 158, 181–82
Jews, 61, 105, 114, 126
John of Dumbleton, 138–39
John of Philoponus, 51, 133
John Paul II, Pope, 187
Johnsson, Ivar, 161
John XXI, Pope, 129
John XXII, Pope, 130
Jordan, Pascual, 261
Journal des Sçavans, 197
Julian, emperor of Rome, 48
Jupiter, 77, 167
Aristotle and, 84–85
conjunction of Saturn and, 159
Copernicus and, 148–51
distance from Sun, 163n
epicycles and, 303–6
Halley’s comet and, 247
Kepler and, 162, 163n, 171
moons of, 177–78, 221–22, 236–37, 359, 363–64
Newton and, 236–39
Ptolemy and, 89, 94, 149, 255
Justinian, emperor of Rome, 51, 104
Keill, John, 225
Kepler, Johannes, 40, 79, 141, 146, 153, 267
Copernicus and, 156, 170, 172, 255
elliptical orbits and, 59, 91–92, 95, 161–73, 325
equal-area rule and, 231–32
Galileo and, 173, 179–81
Newton and, 99, 226–32, 235–37, 241, 248, 249
supernova and, 166
telescope, 180–81, 219, 329, 334–35
Tycho and, 161, 165–69
Kepler’s laws of planetary motion, 99, 188, 227n, 235–37
first, 167, 172, 188, 227n, 236, 323
second, 168–70, 172, 188, 227n, 236–37, 323–25
third, 170–72, 188, 227–31, 236
Keynes, John Maynard, 216
Khayyam, Omar, 109–10, 119
Kilwardy, Robert, 129
kinetic energy, 197, 339–40
kosmos, 6n, 10, 12, 64–66
Koyré, Alexandre, 45, 370
Kuhn, Thomas, 28–29, 369, 377, 378
Lactantius, 49, 66, 183
Laplace, Pierre-Simon, 250
Laskar, Jacques, 245n
Laudan, Laurens, 213, 380
Lavoisier, Antoine, 11, 259
Laws (Plato), 47
leap year, 60
Leibniz, Gottfried Wilhelm, 224–25, 233, 246–48, 251
lenses, 79, 174–75, 329–33, 336
Leonardo da Vinci, 202
Letter to Christina (Galileo), 183, 187
Leucippus, 7, 44, 260
Leverrier, Jean-Joseph, 250
Libri, Giulio, 180
Light of the Moon, The (al-Haitam), 110
Light of the Stars, The (al-Haitam), 110
light. See also optics; reflection; refraction
Descartes and, 206–8, 348
Einstein and, 252
electromagnetism and, 268
energy and, 261
field concept and, 250
Greeks and, 35–37
Grosseteste and, 137
Huygens and, 196–97, 208, 220–23
Newton and, 218, 220–23
speed of, 37, 204, 207–8, 221–22, 259, 348, 358–59
wave theory of, 36, 196–97, 208, 220–23, 221–22, 279, 281, 356–58
limits, 224n, 236, 315
Lindberg, David, 29–30, 132, 369, 375, 377
Linnaeus, Carl, 265
Livy, 39
Lloyd, G. E. R., 379
logarithm, 223n
Lorentz, Hendrik, 34
Louis XI, king of France, 253
Lucas, Henry, 217
Lucretius, 46
luminosity, 87
magnitude and, 88n
Luther, Martin, 155–56, 183
Lyceum, 22, 32–33, 66, 75
M31 (galaxy), 108
Machiavelli, Niccolò, 46
magnetic field, 109, 220, 250, 257–58, 263
magnetism, xiv, 170, 237, 257–59, 268. See also electromagnetism
magnification, 174–75, 219, 334–36
magnitude of stars, 88n
Maimon, Moses ben (Maimonides), 98, 114–15
Malebranche, Nicolas de, 122, 246
Marcellus, Claudius Marcus, 39, 71
Maria Celeste, Sister, 187
mariners, 65, 175
Marriage of Mercury and Philology, The (Martianus Capella), 124
Mars, 77, 245n
apparent retrograde motion of, 90, 148
brightness of, 87
Copernicus and, 148–51
distance to, 239–40
eccentricity of orbit, 167
epicycles and, 303–6
Greeks and, 81–82, 84, 87–90, 94
as ideal test case, 165n
Kepler and, 162, 165, 169
Ptolemy and, 89, 90, 94, 255
sidereal period of, 171
Martianus Capella, 124–25
Martinez, A. M., 269, 368
mass, 232–33, 237–38
mathematics, 1. See also algebra; calculus; geometry; and specific individuals and theories
Arabs and, 105–7, 111, 117, 123
Babylonian, 15
Copernicus and, 158–59
Descartes and, 203, 213–14
Einstein and, 253
field approach and, 250
Galileo and, 172, 179
Glaber, Raoul (Radulfus), 125
Greeks and, 15–21, 35, 39–40, 47, 63, 65–70, 79, 105
Kepler and, 161–62, 255
medieval Europe and, 126, 137–40
Neoplatonists and, 47
Newton and, 218, 223–25, 246, 253
Ptolemaic models and, 79–80, 88–99
Pythagoreans and, 16–18
role of, in science, xv, 19–21, 79, 101, 140, 146, 197
matter
alchemists and, 11
Aristotle and, 64–65
atomic theory of, 259–60
dark matter and, 9
early Greeks and, 4–14, 44–45
Newton and, 256–57
Plato and, 10, 13
Matthews, Michael, 30, 36
9
Maxwell, James Clerk, 220, 258–60, 267
Maxwell’s equations, 258n
Mayr, Simon, 177n
mean speed theorem, 138–41, 191–92, 313–15
Mechanice syntaxism (Philo), 35
medicine, 41–43, 106, 111–12, 114–16, 118, 141
medieval Europe, xiv, 26–28, 101, 124–43
Melanchthon, Philipp, 155, 157, 158, 161
mercury, 11, 198–200
Mercury, 77, 165n, 245n, 250
apparent retrograde motion of, 148
Aristotle and, 84–85
Copernicus and, 86, 148–51, 155
eccentricity of orbit, 167, 324
elongations and orbit of, 320–21
epicycles and, 303–5
Greek models and, 81–82, 84–86, 88–91, 94, 124
Kepler and, 162–63, 171–72
Ptolemy and, 88–91, 94, 149, 155, 255
Mersenne, Marin, 16
Merton, Robert, 253, 382
Merton, Walter de, 138
Merton College, Oxford, 138–41, 191
Merton thesis, 253
Mesopotamia, 104, 107, 110
Metaphysics (Aristotle), 4, 16, 83–84
Meteorology (Aristotle), 127
Meteorology (Descartes), 208
Metonic cycle, 60–61
Meton of Athens, 60
metric system, 240–41
microwave radar, 180
Midsummer Night’s Dream, A (Shakespeare), 34
Miletus, 3–4, 7–8, 11, 33, 254
Milky Way, 128, 176
Millikan, Robert, 260
mirrors, 35–38, 289–91, 348
curved, 37–38, 79
telescope and, 79, 219
modern science, xiii–xiv, 254–55
beginning of, in 17th century, 189–200
Descartes and, 212
early Greeks and, 11–12
Galileo and, 172, 190
Huygens and, 197
impersonal nature of, 254
Newton and, 216
molecules, 249, 259, 262, 266
momentum, 133–34, 232, 234–35. See also impetus
conservation of, 362–63
Monde, Le (Descartes), 203
Montaigne, Michel de, 46
Moon
Arabs and, 114, 117
Aristarchus on size and distance of, 295–301
Aristotle on, 10, 84, 10, 159
bright side of, 63
calendar and, 59–60
Copernicus and, 151
distance from Earth, 53, 63, 66–68, 72–73, 83, 94, 239, 364
Earth’s equatorial bulge and, 153
eclipses of, 59n, 63–64
Galileo and, 175–76, 337–39
Greeks and, 10, 53, 53, 57, 59, 77, 79–82, 84
Kepler and, 237
Newton and, 196, 228–30, 235, 237, 242–44, 250, 361–62
parallax and, 239, 323, 307–9
phases of, 59, 66, 179–80
Ptolemy and, 88, 91, 93–94, 117
Pythagoreans and, 78
size of, 63, 68–69, 75, 83, 295–301
solar eclipse and, 298
spherical shape of, 66
surface of, 128, 175–76, 337–39
terminator and, 175–76, 337–38
tides and, 184–85, 242–43
Tycho and, 160
More, Thomas, 46
Morison, Samuel Eliot, 65n
Morocco, 104–5, 116
motion. See also falling bodies; momentum; planetary motion; and specific types
Aristotle on, 19, 25–29, 51, 129, 133
Galileo and expermental study of, 172, 187, 190–95
Greeks on, 8, 19, 25–29, 51, 129, 133
Huygens and, 194–97
medieval Europe and, 134–35
Newton and laws of, 225–26, 234–36, 243–44, 254
Zeno of Elea on, 8
Muhammad, prophet, 103, 104
Müller, Johann. See Regiomontanus
multiverse, 164–65
music, 125, 171, 191
Pythagoreans and, 15–17
technical note on harmony, 279–82
Mysterium Cosmographicum (Kepler), 162, 165, 169, 171, 173
natural, vs. artificial, 24–25
Natural Questions (Adelard), 126
natural selection, 24, 248, 265–66
navigation, 56, 75
neo-Darwinian synthesis, 266
Neoplatonists, 5, 47, 51, 80, 97–98, 127
Neptune, 250
Neugebauer, O., 64, 372, 373, 376
neutrinos, 9, 263
neutrons, 243, 262–64
New Atlantis, The (Francis Bacon), 202
New Experiments Physico-Mechanical Touching the Spring of the Air (Boyle), 200
Newton, Isaac, 29–30, 40, 46, 69, 91, 106, 146, 172, 188, 199, 202, 205, 212–13, 215–55, 265, 268
background of, 215–18
calculus and, 223–25
cause of gravity and, 243–44
celestial and terrestrial physics unified by, 228, 249, 260, 268
centripetal acceleration and, 196, 226–30, 361–62
Descartes and, 213
diffraction and, 205
Earth’s axis, 74, 153
Earth’s radius and, 361–62
Galileo and, 194
general relativity and, 250–53
gravitational constant (G), 238, 240–41, 287, 289, 363
Huygens and, 196–97
importance of, 244–45, 247–49
mechanics of, 152, 260
momentum and, 133
Moon’s motion and, 93, 196, 226–30, 361–62
motion and gravitation and, 99, 133, 136, 190, 225–45, 254, 363
opposition to theories of, 245–48
optics and, 218–20, 222–23
planetary orbits and, 212, 225–31, 236–41, 244–45
ratio of masses of planets and Sun, 238–39, 364–65
religion and, 245–46
rotation of Earth and planets and, 241–42
telescope and, 79, 219
theory of matter of, 256–57
tides and, 242–43
Tycho and, 251–52
Newton’s laws of motion
first, 234
second, 234–35, 286–88, 363
third, 234–35, 237–38, 363
newton (unit of force), 199
Nicaea, Council of, 60, 218
Nicholas of Cusa, 140–41
Nicias, 46
Nicomachus, 23
Nineveh, battle of, 103–4
nominalists, 132
north celestial pole, 56–57, 74–75
Novara, Domenico Maria, 147
Novum Organum (Bacon), 201–2
Numbers, R. L., 377
observation
Aristotle and, 24–25, 27, 64, 113, 115, 185–86
ben Maimon on, 115
Copernicus and, 91, 149–55, 158, 162, 172
errors in, and Aristarchus, 69–70
experiment vs., 189
Francis Bacon and, 201
Galileo and heliocentrism, 172–73
general principles and deductions blended with, 202
Greek theories of motions of planets and, 90, 91
Grosseteste and, 137
homocentric models and, 86–87
Kepler and, 166–67, 172
mathematics and, 20, 99
medicine vs. physics and, 115–16
medieval Europe and, vs. deductive natural science, 132–34
modern theoretical physicists, 97
Newton and, 242, 248, 250–51
planetary motion and, 189
Plato and, 61–62
prediction and, 146
Ptolemy and, 88, 90–93, 95, 115
small conflicts with, 151–53, 190
success of explanation and, 248, 254
Tycho and accuracy of, 160–61
observatories, 118, 142
&nbs
p; occasionalism, 121–22, 131
octahedron, 10, 12, 162, 163n, 275, 279
octonions, 163
Odyssey (Homer), 47, 56
Oldenburg, Henry, 219
Omar, caliph, 103
On Architecture (Vitruvius), 35
On Floating Bodies (Archimedes), 19, 38–39, 66, 189, 291–94
On Nature (Empedocles), 6
On Paraboloidal Burning Mirrors (al-Haitam), 110
On Speeds (Eudoxus), 80
On the Equilibrium of Bodies (Archimedes), 38
On the Forms (Democritus), 14
On the Heavens and the Earth (Oresme), 135
On the Heavens (Aristotle), 25, 27, 64, 80, 127
On the Heavens (Cleomedes), 75
On the Measurement of the Earth (Eratosthenes), 75
On the Motion of Bodies in Orbit (Newton), 231
On the Nature of Things (Lucretius), 46
On the Republic (Cicero), 17, 71
On the Revolutions of the Heavenly Bodies (Copernicus), 48
On the Sizes and Distances of the Sun and the Moon (Aristarchus of Samos), 66–67
Ophiuchus, supernova in, 166
ophthalmology, 118
Opticks (Newton), 223–24, 245n, 247, 256–57
Optics (al-Haitam), 110
Optics (Descartes), 206–7
Optics (Euclid), 35
Optics (Ptolemy), 37, 208
optics. See also light; reflection; refraction
Arabs and, 110–11, 117
Descartes and, 206–12
electricity and magnetism and, 259
Francis Bacon and, 138
Greeks and, 33, 35–37
Grosseteste and, 137
Huygens and, 196–97
Kepler and, 166
medieval Europe and, 137–38
Newton and, 218, 256–57
Opus Maius (Bacon), 174
orbital periods, 364
orbits, 53, 79. See also planetary motions; and specific moons and planets
circular vs. elliptical, 8, 95, 154–55, 165n
sizes of, 149–50, 154
Oresme, Nicole, 71, 132, 135–37, 139–40, 161, 191
Orion, 176
orrery, 71–72
Ørsted, Hans Christian, 257
Orthodox church, 61
Osiander, Andreas, 156–57, 182
Ostwald, Wilhelm, 260
Othman, caliph, 103
Otto III, emperor of Germany, 126
Ottoman Turks, 116
overtones, 16, 281–82
Oxford University, 131, 137–41
oxygen, 259
Padua, University of, 134, 140–41, 147, 173, 178–80, 193
Pakistan, 104, 123
Palestine, 116
parabola, 40, 194
orbit of comets and, 247
trajectory of projectiles and, 194, 342–46
parallax, 94, 148
annual, 70, 148, 160–61, 177
diurnal, 159–60, 182, 321–23, 361
lunar, 307–9
Paramegmata (calendars of stars), 56
Paris, University of, 125, 127–35, 138
Parmenides, 7–9, 12, 23, 63–64
Parts of Animals (Aristotle), 24
Pascal, Blaise, 194, 199
pascal (unit), 199
To Explain the World: The Discovery of Modern Science Page 40
