35. James Marten, ed., Lessons of War: The Civil War in Children’s Magazines (Wilmington, DE: Scholarly Resources, 1998), p. 9; G. N. Coan, The Little Pilgrim 2 (June 1864): p. 82; Justin G. Turner and Linda Levitt Turner, Mary Todd Lincoln: Her Life and Letters (New York: Knopf, 1972), p. 141; Molly Caldwell Crosby, The American Plague: The Untold Story of Yellow Fever, the Epidemic That Shaped Our History (New York: Berkley, 2006), p. 22.
36. Gerald Schwartz, ed., A Woman Doctor’s Civil War: Esther Hill Hawk’s Diary (Columbia: University of South Carolina Press, 1986), p. 55.
37. John Cimprich, Slavery’s End in Tennessee (University: University of Alabama Press, 1985), p. 90; also, Leon P. Litwack, Been in the Storm So Long: The Aftermath of Slavery (New York: Knopf, 1979), p. 101.
38. The seminal work on the Sea Islands is Willie Lee Rose, Rehearsal for Reconstruction: The Port Royal Experiment (New York: Bobbs-Merrill, 1964); Walker, “Journal of Miss Susan Walker,” p. 30; John W. Blassingame, “The Union Army as an Educational Institution for Negroes, 1862–1865,” Journal of Negro Education 34, no. 2 (1965): pp. 152–59.
39. Sidney Lanier, Tiger-Lilies (1867, repr. Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1969), pp. 136–37; Campbell and Rice, A Woman’s War, p. 63; Anderson, ed., Brokenburn, pp. 28, 174–75, 195–96.
40. Walt Whitman, Memoranda during the War: Civil War Journals, 1863–1865 (1875, repr. Mineola, NY: Dover, 2010), p. 4.
41. Marszalek, Diary of Emma Holmes, pp. 36–37.
42. Marli F. Weiner, ed., Heritage of Woe: The Civil War Diary of Grace Brown Elmore, 1861–1868 (Athens: University of Georgia Press, 1997), 1, 14; 2, 71; Anderson, Brokenburn, pp. 87, 133.
43. DeForest, Miss Ravenel’s Conversion, p. 80; Carolyn De Swarte Gifford, ed., Writing Out My Heart: Selections from the Journal of Frances E. Willard, 1855–96 (Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 1995), pp. 166, 210, 251.
44. Blackford, Letters from Lee’s Army, p. 37; Joel Chandler Harris, On the Plantation: A Story of a Georgia Boy’s Adventures during the War (Athens: University of Georgia Press, 1980), p. 49; Myrta Lockett Avary, ed., A Virginia Girl in the Civil War, 1861–1865 (New York: Appleton, 1903), p. 41; Lois Hill, ed., Poems and Songs of the Civil War (New York: Barnes & Noble, 1990), pp. 133–34.
45. Marszalek, Diary of Emma Holmes, pp. 178–79; Stanley Weintraub, General Sherman’s Christmas: Savannah, 1864 (Washington, DC: Smithsonian Books; New York: Harper, 2009), pp. 62–63; Tilley, ed., Federals on the Frontier, pp. 72–74.
46. Thomas C. DeLeon, Belles, Beaux and Brains of the 60’s (1909, repr. New York: Arno, 1974), p. 158; East, Sarah Morgan, p. 597.
47. John W. Schildt, Drums along the Antietam (Parsons, WV: McClain, 1972), p. 231; Lois Hill, Poems and Songs of the Civil War (New York: Barnes & Noble, 1990), p. 227; Neil Hanson, Unknown Soldiers: The Story of the Missing of the First World War (New York: Knopf, 2006), p. 241.
48. East, Sarah Morgan, p. 610; William C. Darrah, Cartes de Visite in Nineteenth Century Photography (Gettysburg, PA: W. C. Darrah, 1981), pp. 4, 12, 14, 19; Bob Zeller, The Civil War in Depth: History in 3-D (San Francisco, CA: Chronicle, 1997), pp. 14, 18, 38; Whitman, Memoranda during the War, p. 17; Marszalek, Diary of Emma Holmes, pp. 191–92.
49. Harlow, Old Waybills, p. 299; Susan S. Kissel and Margery T. Rouse, eds., The Story of the Pewter Basin and Other Occasional Writings: Collected in Southern Ohio and Northern Kentucky (Bloomington, IN: T.I.S. Publications, 1981), pp. 59–61; Thomas Owen, “Back in War Times,” Athens Gazette (PA), March 11, 1897.
50. Drew Gilpin Faust, This Republic of Suffering: Death and the American Civil War (New York: Knopf, 2008), p. 210. Also, reviews of Faust: Adam Gopnik, “In the Mourning Store,” The New Yorker, January 21, 2008; James M. McPherson, “Dark Victories,” New York Review of Books, April 17, 2008; Joan D. Hedrick, Harriet Beecher Stowe: A Life (New York: Oxford University Press, 1994), p. 312; Stowe, “The New Year,” Household Papers and Stories (1865, repr. Boston: Houghton Mifflin, 1896), pp. 425–37.
51. Print in the Behringer Crawford Museum collection, Park Hills, KY; J. Michael Welton, ed., “My Heart Is So Rebellious”: The Caldwell Letters, 1861–1865 (Warrenton, VA, 1990), p. 19.
52. C. Vann Woodward and Elisabeth Muhlenfeld, The Private Mary Chesnut: The Unpublished Civil War Diaries (New York: Oxford University Press, 1984), p. 106; C. Vann Woodward, Mary Chesnut’s Civil War (New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 1981), pp. 452, 474–75, 155.
53. Woodward, Mary Chesnut’s Civil War, pp. 515, 588–89; Woodward and Muhlenfeld, Private Mary Chesnut, pp. 223–24, 206.
54. Woodward, Mary Chesnut’s Civil War, pp. 477, 247, 286; Allie Patricia Wall, ed., “The Letters of Mary Boykin Chesnut,” M.A. thesis, University of South Carolina, 1977, p. 67; Woodward and Muhlenfeld, Private Mary Chesnut, pp. 105, 138–39, 191, 208; Elisabeth Muhlenfeld, Mary Boykin Chesnut: A Biography (Baton Rouge: Louisiana State University Press, 1981), p. 128.
55. Elisabeth Showalter Muhlenfeld, “Mary Boykin Chesnut: The Writer and Her Work,” Ph.D. diss., 2 vols., University of South Carolina, 1978, 1:394; Muhlenfeld, Mary Boykin Chesnut, p. 123; Woodward and Muhlenfeld, Private Mary Chesnut, p. 101; Woodward, Mary Chesnut’s Civil War, pp. 500, 426.
56. Muhlenfeld, Mary Boykin Chesnut, pp. 115, 129; Woodward and Muhlenfeld, Private Mary Chesnut, p. 177; Woodward, Mary Chesnut’s Civil War, p. 643; Wall, “Letters of Mary Boykin Chesnut,” p. 71.
57. Wall, “Letters of Mary Boykin Chesnut,” p. 72; Woodward and Muhlenfeld, Private Mary Chesnut, p. 161; Woodward, Mary Chesnut’s Civil War, p. 637.
58. Woodward, Mary Chesnut’s Civil War, pp. 291, 716; Woodward and Muhlenfeld, Private Mary Chesnut, p. 252.
CHAPTER SEVEN. INVASIONS AND VIOLATIONS
1. Joan Cashin, ed., Our Common Affairs: Texts from Women in the Old South (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1996), p. 281; Carol K. Bleser and Lesley J. Gordon, eds., Intimate Strategies of the Civil War: Military Commanders and Their Wives (New York: Oxford University Press, 2001), p. 14.
2. James M. McPherson, Battle Cry of Freedom: The Civil War Era (New York: Ballantine, 1988), p. 501; Thomas Williams, “Letters,” American Historical Review 14 (January 1909): p. 320; Robert S. Holzman, Stormy Ben Butler (New York: Macmillan, 1954), pp. 84–85; Donald B. Koonce, ed., Doctor to the Front: The Recollections of Confederate Surgeon Thomas Fanning Wood, 1861–1865 (Knoxville: University of Tennessee Press, 2000), p. 103.
3. Lonnie R. Speer, War of Vengeance: Acts of Retribution against Civil War POWs (Mechanicsburg, PA: Stackpole, 2002), pp. 137–38; also, Walt Whitman in the New York Times, December 27, 1864; Fannie Beers, Memories: A Record of Personal Experiences and Adventures during Four Years of War (Philadelphia: Lippincott, 1888), p. 156.
4. Arthur M. Schlesinger Jr., “War and the Constitution: Abraham Lincoln and Franklin D. Roosevelt,” in Gabor Boritt, ed., War Comes Again: Comparative Vistas on the Civil War and World War II (New York: Oxford University Press, 1995), pp. 151–63; also, Roy P. Basler et al., eds., The Collected Works of Abraham Lincoln, 9 vols. (New Brunswick, NJ: Rutgers University Press, 1953–55), 6:408, 5:421, 6:29–30, 428; Stephen R. Wise, Gate of Hell: Campaign for Charleston Harbor, 1863 (Columbia: University of South Carolina Press, 1994), pp. 148, 169; Speer, War of Vengeance, pp. 96–97.
5. Gerald J. Prokopowicz, All for the Regiment: The Army of the Ohio, 1861–1862 (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 2001), pp. 122, 133; Edwin C. Bearss, Hardluck Ironclad: The Sinking and Salvage of the Cairo, rev. ed. (Baton Rouge: Louisiana State University Press, 1980), p. 94.
6. Charles Carleton Coffin, The Boys of ’61, or Four Years of Fighting, rev. ed. (Boston: Dana Estes, 1896), p. 59; William Andrew Fletcher, Rebel Private, Front and Rear: Memoirs of a Confederate Soldier (1908, repr. Austin: University of Texas Press, 1954), p. 140; Judith Lee Hallock, ed., The Civil War Letters of Joshua K. Callaway (Athens: University of Georgia Press, 1997), p. 157; Charles East, ed., Sarah Morgan: The Civil War
Diary of a Southern Woman (New York: Touchstone, 1992), p. 233.
7. David S. Sparks, ed., Inside Lincoln’s Army: The Diary of Marsena Rudolph Patrick (New York: Thomas Yoseloff, 1964), p. 110; Bell Irvin Wiley, Confederate Women (Westport, CT: Greenwood, 1975), p. 149.
8. Virginia Ingraham Burr, ed., The Secret Eye: The Journal of Ella Gertrude Clanton Thomas, 1848–1889 (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1990), p. 230; Coffin, The Boys of ’61, p. 218.
9. Abner Doubleday, Chancellorsville and Gettysburg (1882, repr. New York: Da Capo, 1994), p. 149; David Evans, Sherman’s Horsemen: Union Cavalry Operations in the Atlanta Campaign (Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 1996), p. 139; Richard Wheeler, Voices of the Civil War (New York: Thomas Y. Crowell, 1976), p. 344; Katharine M. Jones, Heroines of Dixie: Confederate Women Tell Their Story of the War (1955, repr. New York: Smithmark, 1995), pp. 225–26.
10. John Q. Anderson, ed., Brokenburn: The Journal of Kate Stone, 1861–1868 (Baton Rouge: Louisiana State University Press, 1955), p. 185; Marilyn Mayer Culpepper, Trials and Triumphs: Women of the American Civil War (East Lansing: Michigan State University Press, 1991), p. 97; Sallie Hunt, “Boys and Girls in the War,” in News and Courier, eds., Our Women in the War: The Lives They Lived, The Deaths They Died (Charleston, SC: News and Courier Book Presses, 1885), p. 45.
11. Norman D. Brown, ed., Journey to Pleasant Hill: The Civil War Letters of Captain Elijah P. Petty (San Antonio: University of Texas, 1982), pp. 78–79, 223, 215; Catherine Hopley, Life in the South from the Commencement of the War (London: Chapman and Hall, 1863), vol. 2, p. 396.
12. Daniel E. Sutherland, Seasons of War: The Ordeal of a Confederate Community, 1861–1865 (New York: Free Press, 1995), p. 73.
13. William R. Taylor, Cavalier & Yankee: The Old South and American National Character (Garden City, NY: Doubleday, 1963) on prewar stereotypes. Michael C. C. Adams, Our Masters the Rebels: A Speculation on Union Military Failure in the East, 1861–1865 (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1978), chaps. 1 and 2 for their military significance; John Leyburn, “An Interview with Gen. Robert E. Lee,” Century Illustrated Monthly Magazine 30 (May 1885): pp. 166–67.
14. John F. Marszalek, ed., The Diary of Miss Emma Holmes, 1861–1866 (Baton Rouge: Louisiana State University Press, 1994), p. 362.
15. Earl Schenck Miers, ed., When the World Ended: The Diary of Emma LeConte (New York: Oxford University Press, 1957), p. 4.
16. Michael Fellman, Citizen Sherman (New York: Random House, 1995), p. 19; Willamjames Hull Hoffer, The Caning of Charles Sumner: Honor, Idealism and the Origins of the Civil War (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 2010).
17. A. M. Stewart, Camp, March and Battle-Field (Philadelphia: Jas. B. Rodgers, 1865), quoted in Wheeler, Voices of the Civil War, p. 397; Charles Royster, The Destructive War: Sherman, Stonewall Jackson, and the Americans (New York: Vintage, 1993), p. 87; George Templeton Strong, Diary of the Civil War, 1860–1865 (New York: Macmillan, 1962), p. 521.
18. Milo M. Quaife, ed., From the Cannon’s Mouth: The Civil War Letters of General Alpheus S. Williams (Detroit: Wayne State University Press and Detroit Historical Society, 1959), p. 276.
19. Reid Mitchell, Civil War Soldiers (New York: Viking, 1988), p. 107; James M. McPherson, What They Fought For, 1861–1865 (New York: Anchor, 1995), pp. 23–24; John W. Dower, War without Mercy: Race and Power in the Pacific War (New York: Pantheon, 1986) on mutual savagery in the Pacific.
20. Caroline Alexander, The War That Killed Achilles: The True Story of Homer’s Iliad and the Trojan War (New York: Viking, 2009), p. 168; Jonathan Shay, Achilles in Vietnam: Combat Trauma and the Undoing of Character (New York: Touchstone, 1995), p. 78.
21. McPherson, What They Fought For, p. 23; Alan Huffman, Sultana: Surviving Civil War, Prison, and the Worst Maritime Disaster in American History (New York: HarperCollins-Smithsonian Books, 2009), pp. 38–39; Glenn LaFantasie, ed., Gettysburg: Colonel William Oates and Lieutenant Frank A. Haskell (New York: Bantam, 1992), p. 251.
22. Donald Yacovone, ed., A Voice of Thunder: A Black Soldier’s Civil War (Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 1998), p. 45. On Shaw’s symbolism, Michael C. C. Adams, “Seeking Glory: Our Continuing Involvement with the 54th Massachusetts,” Studies in Popular Culture 14, no. 2 (1992): pp. 11–19. Chandra Manning argues that the fight over slavery increasingly became the single most important driving force in both armies. See What This Cruel War Was Over: Soldiers, Slavery, and the Civil War (New York: Alfred A. Knopf, 2007).
23. George Gautier, Harder Than Death: The Life of George Gautier, an Old Texan (Austin, TX, 1902), pp. 10–11; Mary Brobst Roth, ed., “Well, Mary”: Civil War Letters of a Wisconsin Volunteer (Madison: University of Wisconsin Press, 1960), p. 57.
24. The War of the Rebellion: A Compilation of the Official Records of the Union and Confederate Armies (Washington, DC: Government Printing Office, 1880–1991), series 2, vol. 7, pp. 607, 615, 687–91; Ulysses S. Grant, “The Treatment of Prisoners during the War Between the States,” Southern Historical Society Papers 1, no. 4 (April 1876): p. 317.
25. Cecil D. Eby, ed., A Virginia Yankee in the Civil War: The Diaries of David Hunter Strother (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1961), pp. 254–56, 263, 280.
26. O.R., series 1, vol. 43, pt. 1, pp. 30–31.
27. James A. Ramage, Gray Ghost: The Life of Col. John Singleton Mosby (Lexington: University Press of Kentucky, 1999) provides a balanced treatment of the partisans.
28. O.R., series 1, vol. 43, pp. 822, 910; Helen Everett Wood, ed., A Kalamazoo Volunteer in the Civil War (Kalamazoo, MI: Kalamazoo Public Museum, 1962), p. 22; Daniel E. Sutherland, A Savage Conflict: The Decisive Role of Guerrillas in the American Civil War (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 2009). Sutherland argues that partisans and guerrillas played a vital role in, for example, defending the homeland and harassing enemy forces. But they were not seen as quite respectable by the top brass and so were not brought fully into the military fold where there could have been better oversight and control of their activities. See, for instance, pp. ix–xii, 68–70, 89–90, 97–98.
29. O.R., series 1, vol. 44, p. 799; Lee Kennett, Sherman: A Soldier’s Life (New York: HarperCollins, 2001), p. 228; and Lee Kennett, Marching through Georgia: The Story of Soldiers and Civilians during Sherman’s Campaign (New York: Harper, 1996), p. 94.
30. O.R., series 1, vol. 47, pt. 2, p. 533.
31. Edmund Wilson, Patriotic Gore: Studies in the Literature of the American Civil War (New York: Oxford University Press, 1966), pp. 181, 188; O.R., series 1, vol. 31, pt. 3, p. 459; Otto Eisenschiml, “Sherman: Hero or War Criminal?,” Civil War Times Illustrated 2, no. 9 (January 1964): pp. 7, 29. Two authors compare Sherman’s conduct to the Vietnam My Lai massacre of 1968: see John Bennett Walters, Merchant of Terror: General Sherman and Total War (Indianapolis, IN: Bobb-Merrill, 1973); and James Reston Jr., Sherman’s March and Vietnam (New York: Macmillan, 1984).
32. Richard Harwell and Philip N. Racine, eds., The Fiery Trial: A Union Officer’s Account of Sherman’s Last Campaigns (Knoxville: University of Tennessee Press, 1986), pp. 119–20, 129–30.
33. Sparks, Inside Lincoln’s Army, pp. 376, 400. A leading defender of the “directed severity” position is Mark Grimsley, who argues the case well in The Hard Hand of War: Union Military Policy toward Southern Civilians, 1861–1865 (New York: Cambridge University Press, 1995), e.g., pp. 6, 157. However, in defending Sherman, Grimsley notes approvingly that the general urged leniency toward Southern civilians who took the Oath of Allegiance, while saying “death is a mercy” for those who remained “persistent secessionists,” hardly a ringing endorsement of Sherman’s humanity (p. 174). On the potentially counterproductive military results of total war, note that the Pentagon’s 1946 report on Allied unrestricted or carpet bombing of civilian targets showed that German morale and industrial production had actually gone up under ruthless attack.
34. Wiley, Confederate Women, p
. 150; Reid Mitchell, The Vacant Chair: The Northern Soldier Leaves Home (New York: Oxford University Press, 1993), p. 36.
35. John H. Hight, History of the Fifty-Eighth Regiment of Indiana Volunteer Infantry (Princeton, IN: Clarion Press, 1895), p. 410.
36. Henry Kyd Douglas, I Rode with Stonewall (1940, repr. Greenwich, CT: Fawcett, 1961), p. 302; Miers, ed., When the World Ended, p. 5; Susan S. Kissel and Margery T. Rouse, eds., The Story of the Pewter Basin and Other Occasional Writings: Collected in Southern Ohio and Northern Kentucky (Bloomington, IN: T.I.S. Publications, 1981), pp. 66–68; William P. Buck, ed., Sad Earth, Sweet Heaven: The Diary of Lucy Rebecca Buck during the War Between the States, December 25, 1861–April 15, 1865, 2nd. ed. (Birmingham, AL: Buck Publishing, 1992), pp. 287–89.
37. Thomas Goodrich, Bloody Dawn: The Story of the Lawrence Massacre (Kent, OH: Kent State University Press, 1991), p. 4.
38. Goodrich, Bloody Dawn, p. 153; Vivian K. McLarty, ed., “The Civil War Letters of Colonel Bazel Lazear,” Missouri Historical Review 45, pt. 2 (July 1950): p. 390.
39. Michael Fellman, “Women and Guerrilla Warfare,” in Catherine Clinton and Nina Silber, eds., Divided Houses: Gender and the Civil War (New York: Oxford University Press, 1992), p. 151.
40. National Archives, RG 94: Records of the Adjutant General’s Office (List of U.S. soldiers executed by United States military authorities during the late war, 1861–1866). Case of Charles Sperry, file no. NN 2427; Case of James Preble, file no. MM 1774.
41. Burr, Secret Eye, p. 252; William R. Jevell, ed., History of the 72d Indiana Volunteer Infantry (Lafayette, IN: S. Vater, 1882), pp. 337–38.
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