6. Maenchen-Helfin (1973), pp. 11-13, 18-26, Thompson (1996), pp. 19-68.
7. Attacking Huns near the end of winter, see Leo, Problemata 7. 9; on Hunnic horses, see Vegetius, Mulomedicina 3. 6. 17. 1, with Maenchen-Helfin (1973), pp. 185, 204; on saddles, see Maenchen-Helfin (1973), pp. 208-210; Heather (2005), p. 328 repeats the claim that each warrior required ten horses, citing R. Lindner, `Nomadism, Huns and Horses', Past and Present 92 (1981), pp. 1-19. 8. On bows and archery, see Maenchen-Helfin (1973), pp. 221-232, Heather (2005), pp. 154-158, Man (2005), p. 97-99, N. Fields, The Hun: Scourge of God AD 375-565 (2006), pp. 30-32, 39-46, M. Bishop &J. Coulston, Roman Military Equipment from the Punic Wars to the Fall ofRome (2nd edn, 2006), pp. 88,134- 135,164-168, 205-206, J. Coulston, `Roman Archery Equipment', in M. Bishop (ed.), The Production and Distribution ofRoman Military Equipment (1985), PP- 230-348; for effectiveness, see W. McLeod, `The Range of the Ancient Bow', Phoenix, 19 (1965), pp. 1-14; for modern reconstructions and techniques, see L. Kassai, Horseback Archery (2002).
9. H. Elton, Warfare in Roman Europe: AD 350-425 (1996), pp. 26-z8 discusses the possibility that Hunnic lifestyle changed as they settled near the empire.
io. E.g., the generic account in Man (2005), pp. 100-103, and c£ Heather (2005), pp. 156-157.
ii. SeeM. Whitby, in CAH2 XIV (2000), pp. 704-712-
iz. Maenchen-Helfin (1973), pp• 74-94, Thompson (1996), pp. 30-45, and A. Lee, in CAHZ XIV (2-000), pp. 40-41.
13. Maenchen-Helfin (1973), pp. 109-110, Thompson (1996), pp. 87-89.
14. See Maenchen-Helfin (1973), pp. 108-120, Thompson (1996), pp. 89-95 and Whitby, in CAHZ XIV (2000), pp. 708-709 on sieges, with references to Priscus fragment 6. 2 (= Brockley 54, who suggested alternative section divisions), Jordannes, Getica 42. 220-221, and Procopius, Wars 3. 4. 30-5; on the bones at Naissus, see Priscus Excerpta de legationibus Romanorum adgentes 123.
15. On demands for return of deserters, see Whitby, in CAH2 XIV (2000), P• 705.
16. Maenchen-Helfin (1973), pp. 120-121, Thompson (1996), pp. 98-103, and J. Bury, History of the Later Roman Empire from the Death of Theodosius Ito the Death ofJustinian, Vol. 1 (1958), pp. 271-276.
17. Maenchen-Helfin (1973), pp. 123-125, Thompson (1996), pp. 104-108, and R. Blockley, East Roman Foreign Policy (1992), pp. 63-64.
18. On taxation of the Senate, see Priscus, fragment9. 3. 22-33 and the comments on his attitude in Thompson (1996), pp. 203-224; on sending of frequent embassies, see Maenchen-Helfin (1973), pp. 185, Thompson (1996), pp. 95-97, with Priscus, fragments 5M. 1-10; on Attilas diplomacy, see also Whitby, in CALF XIV (2-000), pp. 706-708.
19. Bury (1958), pp. 279-288 provides a full and lively translation of this remarkable passage.
2o. Thompson (1996), pp. 140-141.
z1. Bury (1958), p. 287 slightly mod.
22. Maenchen-Helfin (1973), pp. 195-196, Thompson (1996), pp. 112-136, and Heather (2005), pp. 313-320, 322-324.
23. H. Wolfram, The Roman Empire and its Germanic Peoples (1997), pp. 123136.
24. Bury (1958), PP. 240-244, Heather (2005), pp. 281-282, Thompson (1996), PP. 38-40, 54-56, 6o, and Maenchen-Helfin (1973), pp. 33-35, 49-50; on Aetius and other Roman generals in this period, see P. McGeorge, Late Roman Warlords (2003), passim.
25. See P. Heather, in CAH2 XIV (2000), pp. 5-8, Bury (1958), PP. 247-249, Maenchen-Helfin (1973), pp. 63-65.
26. SeeHeather (2005), pp. 2-66-2-72, Bury (1958), pp. 244-247, Wolfram (1997), pp. 165-167, and M. Todd, The Early Germans (2nd edn, 2004), pp. 175-178; for the figure of 80,000 for Vandal numbers, see Victor of Vita, History of the Vandal Persecutions ,. ,.
27. Procopius, Wars 3. 3. 22-30 claims that Boniface invited the Vandals into Africa, hoping to use them as allies in his struggle with Aetius, but subsequently repented of the decision; on St Augustine's letters, see Heather (2005), PP- 2,67 & 271; examples of letters written in these years include Augustine, Ep. 220, 229231.
28. Heather (2005), pp. 272-280, and in CAH2 XIV (zooo), pp. io-1z, 288299, Bury (1958), PP. 254-260, and A. Jones, The Later Roman Empire, 284-602 (1964), pp. 190, 2,04-208-
29. Heather (2005), pp. 281-289, Maenchen-Helfin (1973), pp. 64-70, Thompson (1996), pp. 71-79; quote from Merbaudes, Panegyric 1.
30. Maenchen-Helfin (1973), pp. 129-132, Thompson (1996), pp. 143-148, Heather (zoo5), pp. 333-337, and Jones (1964), p. 194.
31. Thompson (1996), pp. 148-156, Bury (1958), pp. 288-294, and Heather (2005), pp. 336-339-
32. Maenchen-Helfin (1973), pp. 131-142, Thompson (1996), pp. 156-163, Bury (1958), pp. 294-296, and Heather (2005), pp. 339-342.
33. Maenchen-Helfin (1973), PP- 143-162, Thompson (1996), pp. 163-176, Burns (1958), pp. 296-298, and Whitby in CAHZ XIV (2000), pp. 712-713.
34. Bury (1958), pp. 298-300, & Heather (2005), pp. 369-375.
i8-Sunset on an Outpost of Empire
1. Zosimus, Historia Nova 6. 5 (trans. Ridley).
2. Procopius, History of the Wars: The Vandal War 3. 2. 38 (Loeb translation, H. Dewing).
3. Gildas, De Excidio 20. 1, 23-26. r; for discussion of this and other sources, seeA. Birley, The Roman Government ofBritain (2005), pp. 461-465.
4. On the literary sources, seeA. Esmonde Cleary, The Ending ofRoman Britain (1989), pp. x, 162-165, & C. Snyder, An Age of Tyrants: Britain and the Britons ad 400-600 (1998), passim, but esp. pp. 29-49, and K. Dark, Britain and the End ofthe Roman Empire (2000), pp. 27-48.
5. Dark (2000), p. 60, and Snyder (1998), p. 68.
6. For emphasis on the wider context of Britain within the empire, see esp. Dark (zooo), Esmonde Cleary (1989), and N. Faulkner, The Decline and Fall of Roman Britain (2nd edn, 2004)-
7. For Roman Britain in general, see S. Frere, Britannia (3rd edn, 1987), p. Salway, Roman Britain (1998), M. Todd, Roman Britain (3rd edn, 1999), and M. Millets, Roman Britain (1995).
8. On the size of the army in the second century, seeA. Birley, `The Economic Effects of Roman Frontier Policy', in A. King & M. Henig (eds.), The Roman West in the Third Century, BAR tog (1981), p. 40; on the smaller size of thirdcentury barrack blocks, see N. Hodgson & P. Bidwell, Auxiliary barracks in a New Light: Recent Discoveries on Hadrian's Wall', Britannia 35 (2004), PP- 121-157,. esp. 147-154.
9. On the cathedral, see Dark (2ooo), pp. 50-51; on `small towns', see the papers in T. Rodwell & T. Rowley (eds.), Small Towns of Roman Britain, BAR 15 (1975), and more generally J. Wacher, The Towns of Roman Britain (2nd edn., 1995).
io. Faulkner (2004), pp. 27-30, J. Manley, AD 43: The Roman Invasion of Britain: A Reassessment (2002), 64-5, 111-128; the inscription is RIB 9,.
ii. Quotes from D. Mattingly, An Imperial Possession: Britain in the Roman Empire, 54 BC-AD 409 (2006), pp. 20 & 12; see also the review of this work including M. Beard, The Times Literary Supplement, 4 October zoo6, and S. Ireland, JRS, 97 (2007), pp. 364-366.
,z. On the organisation of the diocese and provinces, see S. Johnson, Later Roman Britain (198o), pp. 4-31, Todd (,999), pp. 179-203, Esmonde Cleary (1989), pp. 41-130, and Snyder (1998), pp. 3-16; on the army, see S. James, `Britain and the Late Roman Army', in T. Blagg & A. King, Military and Civilian in Roman Britain: Cultural Relationships in a Frontier Province (1984), pp. 161-186. This remains an excellent article although the concept of chaletbarracks has now been discredited by Hodgson & Bidwell (2004).
13. On the Picts and other northern peoples, see Mattingly (2oo6), p. 436, Johnson (i98o), pp. 51-64, and Dark (2000), pp. 211-214; for an introduction to the problems of dating St Patrick and some discussion of his life, see C. Thomas, `Saint Patrick and Fifth-Century Britain: An Historical Model Explored', in P. Casey (ed.) The End of Roman Britain (1979), pp. 81-ioi, and St Patrick Confessions i.
14. Ammianus Marcellinus 27. 8. 5.
15. For discussion of this question, see J. Coterill, `Saxon Raiding and the Role of the Late Roman Coastal Forts of Britain', Britannia, 24 (1993), PP- 227-239, A. Pearson, `Piracy in Late Roman Britain: A Perspective from the Viking Age', Britannia 37 (2oo
6), pp. 337-353, J. Haywood, Dark Age Naval Power: A Reassessment ofFrankish andAnglo-Saxon Seafaring Activity (i99i), esp. pp. 15-76, and G. Grainge, The Roman Invasions ofBritain (2005), pp. 141-i6o; Haywood (1991), pp. 18-22 on the question of sails and the carving from Denmark.
16. Vegetius, Fpitoma Rei Militari 4. 37-
17. See S. Johnson, The Roman Forts of the Saxon Shore (1976), and A. Pearson, The Roman Shore Forts (2002), for contrasting views of the functions of the forts.
18. On the state of the towns, see Esmonde Cleary (1989), pp. iii-133, Mattingly (2006), pp. 325-350, Faulkner (2004), pp. 169-185, Johnson (1980), pp. 91-97, Todd (1999), pp. 210-212.
19. Esmonde Cleary (1989), pp. 134-136, Mattingly (2oo6), pp. 368-370, Faulkner (2004), pp. 185-220, and Todd (1999), pp. 221-229; on Christianity, see Dark (2ooo), pp. 18-20.
20. Zosimus, Astoria Nova 6. 5, 6, 10, with contrasting comments in Birley (2005), pp. 461-465, Snyder (1998), p. 24.
21. Esmonde Cleary (1989), pp. 136-143, Faulkner (2004), pp. 242-262, Mattingly (zoo6), pp. 529-539, Snyder (1998), pp. 17-25, and Johnson (1980), pp. 104-110-
2z. On terminology, see esp. Snyder (1998), pp. 81-127-
23. For discussion of the Gallic Chronicle of 452, see R. Burgess, `The Dark Ages Return to Fifth century Britain: The restored Gallic Chronicle Exploded', Britannia, 21 (1990), PP. 185-195, with the reply by M. Jones & P. Casey, `The Gallic Chronicle Exploded?', Britannia, 22 (1991), pp. 212-215. The relevant entry is for Honorius XVI.
24. K. Dark, 'A Sub-Roman Re-Defence of Hadrian's Wall?', Britannia 23 (1992), pp. 111-120.
25. Esmonde Cleary (1989), pp. 144-161, 172-185.
z6. See Dark (2ooo), esp. pp. 150-192.
27. See I. Wood, `The Fall of the Western Empire and the End of Roman Britain', Britannia, 18 (1987), pp. 251-262, Snyder (1998), pp. 37-40, and Johnson (1980), pp. 115-116.
z8. For Pelagianism in general, see H. Chadwick, in CAH' XIII (1998), pp. 288-292; on St Germanus and the Pelagians, see I. Wood, `The End of Roman Britain: Continental Evidence and Parallels', in M. Lapidge & D. Dumville (eds.), Gildas: New Approaches (1984), pp. 1-25, esp. 12-13.
29. For an excellent and insightful survey of the academic debate over Saxon settlement, see G. Halsall, Barbarian Migrations and the Roman West, 376-568 (2007), pp. 357-370-
30. See the varying views in Johnson (1980), pp. 104-147, Dark (2000), pp. 58104, and H. Wolfram, The Roman Empire and its Germanic Peoples (1997), PP- 240-247.
31. See Wolfram (1997), pp. 244-247, and Johnson (1980), pp. 119-123; The Gallic Chronicle of 452, lists under 441 (Theodosius II XVIII) that Britain fell under the control of the Saxons.
32. M. Todd, The Early Germans (2nd edn, 2004), pp. 2,02-2,10-
33. Sidonius Apollinaris, Epistolae 3. 9. 1-2 for Riothamus, with Snyder (1998), pp. 82-83; St Patrick, Epistola 6 for the British King Coroticus.
34. For the suggestion of Christian survival in the south-east, see Dark (2000), PP. 78-85.
35. On Britons and their sense of identity, see Snyder (1998), pp. 66-72.
36. There is a good brief introduction to the evidence and the academic attitude to Arthur in Snyder (1998), pp. 253-255. J. Morris, The Age ofArthur: A History of the British Isles from 350 to 65o (1973) remains a good read, but has not always dated well.
19-Emperors, Kings and Warlords
i. Salvian, De Gubernatione Dei 4. 30, with J. Bury, History of the Later Roman Empire from the Death of Theodosius Ito the Death ofJustinian (1958), p. 308-
2. Procopius, Wars 3. 4. 37-38.
3. For the Vandal sack of Rome in general, see Bury (1958), PP. 323-326, A. Jones, The Later Roman Empire, 284-602 (1964), p. 240, P. Barnwell, Emperors, Prefects and Kings: The Roman West, 395-565 (1992), pp. 116-117, B. WardPerkins, The Fall of Rome and the End of Civilization (2oo5), p. 17, citing Victor of Vita, Vandal Persecution 1. 25 for the ransoming of captives, and P. Heather, The Fall of the Roman Empire: A New History (2005), pp. 378-379; for the sack and the death of Petronius, see Priscus, fragment 30. 2, John of Antioch 201, Procopius, Wars 3. 4. 36-5. 5, and Sidonius Apollinaris, Letters 2. 13-
4. Barnwell (1992), pp. 61-62.
5. Bury (1958), pp. 326-328, Jones (1964), pp. 240-241, and Heather (2oo5), PP- 375-384, 390-391; on rumours of foul play in the death of Avitus see John of Antioch, fragment 86.
6. See M. Todd, The Early Germans (2nd edn, 2004), PP. 152-154, 172-175, and P. Heather, The Goths (1996), pp. 187-191, 194-198, and in CAH2 XIV (2000), p. zz.
7. Bury (1958), PP. 330-332, and Heather in CAH2 XIV (2000), p. 23.
8. For discussion, see Heather (2005), pp. 343-348 and in CAHT XIV (2000) PP. 19-23.
9. Heather (2oo5), pp. 392-407, and Burns (1958), PP. 332-337-
io. Ward-Perkins (2005), pp• 45-46, 54, Heather (2005), pp. 282-283, and I. Wood, in CAH2 XIV (2000), pp. 502-505.
it. For discussion, see J. Drinkwater, `The Bacaudae of Fifth Century Gaul', in J. Drinkwater & H. Elton (eds.), Fifth Century Gaul (1992), pp. 208-217.
12. SeeA. Lee in CAH2 XIV (2000), pp. 45-48, and Bury (1958), pp. 316-321.
13. In general, see Bury (1958), pp. 348-388, and S. Mitchell, A History of the Later Roman Empire, AD 284-641 (2007), pp. 289-293; for more detail, see P. Allen, in CAH' XIV (2000), pp. 811-82o, and W. Treadgold, A History of Byzantine State and Society (1997), esp. pp. 1-241.
14. Mitchell (2007), pp. 275, 290, 320, and Bury (1958), PP. 215-221.
15. Sidonius Apollinaris, Letters i. 2. 2-3 (Loeb translation, W. Anderson, 1936).
16. Sidonius Apollinaris, Letters 1. 2. 4.
17. Heather (2005), PP. 375-384, Mitchell (2007), pp. 205-2o8, and esp. J. Harries, SidoniusApollinaris and the Fall ofRome, ad4o7--485 (1994)•
18. Sidonius Apollinaris, Letters 2. 1. 1-8, and for the quoted sections 2. 9. 8-9 (Loeb translation).
19. Ward-Perkins (2005), pp. 54-56, Heather (2005), PP- 419-423, and Bury (1958), PP. 342-343; see also Sidonius Apollinaris, Letters 7. 7. 2-6 on his anger at the handover of Clermont by Nepos, & 8. 3. 2, which describes the Gothic women.
20. Eugippius, The Life of St Severinus 4. 1.
21. Eugippius, The Life of St Severinus 2o. 1-2 (translation L. Bieler with L. Krestan, The Catholic University of America Press, 1965).
22. Eugippius, The Life of St Severinus 1. 4-2. 2.
23. See Heather (2oo5), pp. 407-415, and Ward-Perkins (2005), pp. 17-20, 134136; for King Feva, see Eugippius, The Life of St Severinus 8. 1, 22. 2, 31. 1-6, 401-3, 42. 8, 44. 4•
24. See Bury (1958), PP. 338-341, and Heather (2005), PP. 425-426.
25. Bury (1958), PP. 389-394, 404-406, Heather (2005), p. 4z6, Jones (1965), PP. 243-245, and Lee, in CAH2 XIV (2000), pp. 49-52.
z6. Heather (2005), PP. 428-430, Bury (1958), pp. 405-411, and Jones (1965), PP. 244-245.
27. On Odoacer, see H. Wolfram, The Roman Empire and its Germanic Peoples (1997), pp. 183-188; on the significance of 476, see B. Croke, `AD 476-the manufacture of a turning point', Chiron, 73 (1983), pp. 81-119.
28. See M. Humphries, in CALF XIV (2000), pp. 528-530, Bury (1958), pp. 422-426, and Heather (1996), pp. 216-2,2,o.
20-West and East
i. Procopius, Wars 5. 1. 25-27 (Loeb translation, H. Dewing).
z. Cassiodorus, Variae i. i.
3. A good introduction to such ideas is provided by the collection of extracts and articles published in T. Noble (ed.), From Roman Provinces to Medieval Kingdoms (2006); the work of P. Brown has also been massively influential, beginning with The World of Late Antiquity: From Marcus Aurelius to Muhammad (1971).
4. For an excellent discussion of warfare in this period, see G. Halsall, Warfare and Society in the Barbarian West, 450-900 (2003); for a more general survey of developments throughout the empire, see J. Moorhead, The Roman Empire Divided 400-700 (2001), and G. Halsall, Barbarian Migrations and the Roman West, 376-568 (2007), pp. 284-357-
5. Suetonius, Tiberius, 32.
6. E.g., see J. Moorhead, Theodoric in Italy
(1992), pp. 66-68, and P. Heather, The Goths (1996), pp. 236-242.
7. Sidonius Apollinaris, Letters 5. 5 on the friend fluent in the Burgundian language, and Carmen 5. 238-242 for using butter on hair; for Catholics dressed in Vandal fashion, see Victor Vitalis, History 2. 8.
8. The main advocate of transferral of tax revenue rather than land itself is W. Goffart, Barbarians and Romans: The Techniques of Accommodation Revisited (1980), who staunchly defends his position in Barbarian Tides: The Migration Age and the Later Roman Empire (2006), pp. 119-186. For the opposing view, see the insightful comments of W. Liebeschuetz, `Cities, Taxes, and the Accommodation of the Barbarians: The Theories of Durliat and Goffart', in Noble (zoo6), pp. 309-323. For Theodoric's propaganda about the roles of Goths and Romans, see Moorhead (1992), pp. p. 71-75, and in more detail, P. Amory, People and Identity in Ostrogothic Italy, 489-554 (1997), PP. 43-85. The quotation is from Cassiodorus, Variae 12. 5. 4.
9. Moorhead (1992), pp. 75-80, and T. Charles-Edwards, in CAH2 XIV (2ooo), pp. 260-271.
10. See Moorhead (2001), pp. 54-56, 58-6o, and Moorhead (1992), pp. 95-97, Amory (1997), pp. 195-276, Heather (1996), pp. 2,45-258, and Todd, The Early Germans (2nd edn, 2004), pp. 150-163, 166-171, 177-178, and H. Wolfram, The Roman Empire and its Germanic Peoples (1997), pp. 169-182,, 199-2,13.
ii. See Moorhead (1992), pp. 1-31, and Wolfram (1997), pp. 199-203; on the legi story, see anonymous Valesianus 79, with analysis in Moorhead (1992), PP. 104-105.
i2. Sidonius Apollinaris, Letters 1. 2. 4, with P. Barnwell, Emperors, Prefects and Kings: The Roman West, 3,95-565 (1992), PP- 73-74, 129-145; on legislation, see Charles-Edwards, in CAH2 XIV (2000), pp. 260-287.
13. For a much fuller consideration of the impact on material culture of the fall of Rome, see B. Ward-Perkins, The Fall of Rome and the End of Civilization (2005), pp. 87-168. Although there may be some regional and local exceptions to the bleak picture he paints, the overall argument is highly convincing. For a discussion of the western provinces in the fourth and fifth centuries, see E. Swift, The End of the Western Roman Empire: An Archaeological Investigation (2000), arguing that the change from Roman to barbarian rule is not always obvious in the archaeological record.
How Rome Fell: Death of a Superpower Page 60
