II.43 There are said to be six plagues or īti bādhalu: excessive rain (ativṛṣṭi), drought (anāvṛṣṭi), rats (ĕlukalu), parrots (cilukalu), locusts (miḍatalu) and invasion from neighbouring kings (ceruva-rājulu).
The parrots are bound with necklaces (gŏlusulace nibaddamai) and kept as pets in the houses of courtesans (vārāṅganāgāra).
In those days, kings wore victory anklets (gaṇḍa pĕṇḍeramulu) that were engraved with the likenesses of defeated rival kings. Therefore, whenever the king would move, his enemies would noisily rub up against each other (krandugān itaretarambu rāyiḍi seyu).
THE SUMMER
II.45 Trumpet flowers (Skt pāṭala, Tel kaligŏṭṭu) and silk-cotton trees (Skt śālmalī, Tel būrugu) are markers of the summer season. I have not translated bhāgdheyamu (TKR 136 adṛṣṭamu ayinaṭṭi) which seems to suggest the animistic worship of trees, still commonly practised throughout India.
II.46 Here Kāla Bhairava is kṣetra-pāluḍu, a guardian of the land. As a manifestation of Śiva kāla can mean either time or blackness. The dry barren rocks make the entire land into a cākirevu, a place to wash clothes. Even today, washer men and women clean clothes by beating them on flat rocks.
II.47 The ancient Vedic god Varuṇa (śaradhi-pa, Lord of the Sea) is invoked here as a precursor to the creator god Brahma. This usage could be a subtle reference to the Matysa avatāra when Vishnu became a fish and warned King Manu about the coming of a great flood. He instructed Manu, in a fashion similar to the Biblical story of Noah, to save the world by constructing a boat and loading it with various plants and animals.
II.49 In Hindu mythology the sun is anthropomorphized as the god Sūrya who rides across the sky in a chariot drawn by seven horses. His charioteer is the legless Anūru who is referred to here in Telugu as piccukuṇṭu, one who hops like a sparrow, i.e. a cripple (Brown 462). The chariot reins are made of snakes and are deprived of food because the West Wind (paḍamara vĕṭṭa) is too hot to eat.
The poetic device used here is known as hetu alaṅkāra or ‘embellishment based on causality’.
II.51–52 These poems are based on the notion that the sea (abdhi-rāṭ) is the husband of the river maidens (vāhinī-taruṇulu), and that the monsoon rains function like their love messenger (ĕḍakāḍu, a pimp, or literally ‘a go-between’. ‘move along dry river beds’ has been added for clarity. ‘God of Clouds’ is parjanyuḍu, an epithet of Indra.
II.53 This detailed poem written in the long Sīsa metre paints a beautiful tableau of summer flora and fauna. In the hands of this master poet, the lotus, which is most often the object of comparison (upamāna), is turned into the subject of comparison (upameya). Clumps of lotus vines (tammi-gumpulan) are likened to a field of tubers (cema maḍivoni), see TKR 144.
The uluca fish mentioned in this verse is glossed by TKR 143 as cinna cepalu, or ‘little fish’, but both Brown and Gwynn define it as hilsa, a fairly large fish common to the Bay of Bengal.
The rather fantastic description of alligators diving into wells is unique. Although not seen today, TKR 144 explains that this was a likely sight for farmers in the Rāyalasīma region of southern Āndhra.
‘water-eel’ is a translation of malugu mīn, sometimes called mulugu pāmu, or snake fish.
II.54 Compare the tasty bŏmmiḍāya, the great loach or tobaccopipe fish, to the water-eel cited in verse II.53. ‘bony fish’ are ḍātkūṭa, a type of bitter fish (Brown 303) glossed by TKR 145 as mullu cepalu or fish with many bones.
II.55 One long Sanskrit compound creates the sonic effect of splashing water: kumbhombhanodbhūtāmbudhvani = kumbha + umbhana + udbhūta + ambu + dhvani, literally ‘the sound of water when pots are raised and dropped’. This sound then ‘becomes an instrument’ (vādyamai) to accompany prodgīta geyālu, boisterous folk songs.
andhu-yantra nati-kṛt is an interesting description of the mechanism used at village wells. yantra is glossed by both VVS 103 and TKR 146 as etamulu which Brown describes as a water lift based on the principle of a see-saw. nati is taken by VVS 103 as vaṇguṭanu, based directly on the Sanskrit meaning of bending or stooping, while TKR 146 adds kālito krindaku trŏkkevāriceta, literally ‘by means of a man who pushes down with his foot’.
II.57–59 These three poems about the women at roadside water stalls (prapā-prapālikalu) have been combined due to repetitive imagery. The Yamuna and Gaṅga are thought to be black and white respectively.
For a detailed analysis of II.59, see NRS 40–42. Also compare the image of pouring water to the subtler Gāthā-sapta-śati 161 in Mehrotra’s The Absent Traveller (2008)—
As the traveller, eyes raised,
Cupped hands filled with water, spreads
His fingers and lets it run through,
She pouring it reduces the trickle.
II.60 ‘white nightingales’ are vĕnnĕla cakora. The Sanskrit cakora is variously translated as bartavelle, Greek partridge, turtledove or nightingale. In Telugu vĕnnĕla-piṭṭa or vĕnnĕla-pulugu is a nocturnal bird that basks in moonlight and feeds on moonbeams (Brown 729). ‘pouring a round flat pancake’ is cāpaṭṭu posinaṭṭu.
II.61 ‘coconut liquor’ is nārikeḷa savapu.
II.63 The summer moon is mentioned here as oṣadhi-pāluna, the Lord of Plants. During this time of the year, the moon is less than vibrant and is comparable to the tired faces of the female lovers. For ‘powerless God of Love’ (tīlagu kantu), see Note II.65.
II.64 indrajālam (Tel kanukaṭṭu vidya) is juggling, conjuring, or sleight of hand. TKR suggests that magicians in those days performed tricks (kṛtrima-gatin) by using peacock feathers (mayūra-piñchikā) as a sort of magic wand.
II.65 The Hindu God of Love, much like the Roman Cupid, uses a bow and arrow to strike passion into lovers. His weapons are a sugarcane bow (cĕraku vilu) and flower-tipped arrows (puṣpa-bāṇālu). The height of summer is the planting season for sugarcane, but also a time when lovemaking is less common (cf. II.63).
II.66 Women’s breasts are often compared to cakravāka birds, but here they become well-trained decoy birds (dīmulai) and attract well-water with their natural coolness (śaityam).
II.67 Both jasmine buds and trumpet flowers appear in the summer. Poison (nābhiyun) and its antidote (nir-viṣambu, i.e. amṛtam) were simultaneously formed during the Churning of the Milky Ocean. Their opposing qualities (verpaḍa guṇambulu) are compared to rain and drought.
II.69 caluva capparamulu are canopied rest stops, specially arranged for feudatory lords en route to the capital. The poem is based on the proverb—kumpaṭi-lo tāmara, ‘like a lotus in a furnace’, or as is common in English, ‘an oasis in the desert’.
II.70 This wonderful description of life and nature closes the description of the summer season. Notice how this entire section is bookended with monsoon forecasts (cf. II.45).
THE KING’S CONTEST
II.71–72 I have combined these two kanda padyams because they flow together as a single narrative. Verse II.71 ends with bhaktin ‘with devotion’ and II.72 begins with seviñci ‘worshipped’. In extended narrative passages, the poet often links together multiple poems written in the faster paced Telugu metres. For a good example of this technique, see Khāṇḍikya Keśidhvaja Saṁvādam in Chapter III (not translated here).
Vṛṣagiri refers to the Aḷaghar Kovĕl located about 15 miles northwest of Madurai at the foot of the Aḷaghar Hills. The deity here is Sundara Bāhuvu Svāmi ‘The God with Beautiful Arms’, and is praised in verse by many Ālvār saints (TKR 159). The famous Boat Festival (tĕppa tirunāḷḷu) held in āṣāḍha-māsam, corresponding to June or July, falls at the end of the Indian summer.
II.73 Another fantastic gastronomic list that includes some unique items such as the karpūra cakkĕrakeḷi, a type of banana known for its camphor-like fragrance (surabhi rambhā-phalambulu), and the special rasadāḍi banana that satisfies by cooling (tanupāru = tanupu + āru). The word toḍa (‘with’, or ‘in a
ddition to’) is repeated a whopping eight times and I have tried to translate this sense of pleasant gluttony with fast-paced rhythms.
The Sanskrit word for guest is atithi, which is ‘a’ (the negative prefix) + ‘tithi’ (‘a specified date’). Therefore an atithi is one who arrives unexpectedly. In India, one’s guest is treated like a god, as in the famous Upaniṣādic saying atithi devo bhava.
II.74 Ārya is a Sanskrit metre based on mātrās (beats) rather than akṣaras (syllables). Some scholars believe this metre could have originated in South India (see Hart 1975, and Reddy 2005). In this verse, gīta could apply to other mātrā-based metres in either Sanskrit or Telugu, as in Upagīti or Teṭagīti for example, but I have translated it as ‘song’. TKR 162 glosses it as vedānta-gītālu and VVS 114 adds ślokālu. ‘pithy proverbs’ are subhāṣitambulu.
II.75 A rich description of the king in royal attire; cĕṅgāvi daśa malañcina is an unclear phrase. The commentators have offered various readings and interpretations but taking daśa as dasilī, I have used ‘red silk sash’. The word for courtesan in this verse is bhoginī or ‘lover’.
II.76 The phrase purohita dharma is ‘behaviour helpful for the future,’ but can also be read as ‘priestly conduct’. ātma kīlkŏnan is ‘pierced the king’s soul’. Although I have rearranged some of the interpretations here, the essential meaning has been preserved.
II.77 A string of short non-finite verbs create the staccato like rhythm in this fast-paced kanda padyam. ‘self-perpetuated delusions’ is tana mosamunakun, glossed by TKR 166 as tanaku tānai cesukunna ātma-vañcanaku, literally ‘his own frauds that he alone committed against himself’.
II.78 In Hindu genesis mythology, Manu is the first man (prabhṛtulu). The God of Death is referred to here as Kāluḍu, an epithet based on his embodiment of time or kāla (cf. ‘Time’ as kālamu in II.79 and II.80).
II.80 This verse in the Campakamāla metre is a list of 22 famous kings. The first six are known as the Six Universal Monarchs (ṣaṭ-cakravartulu) and the following 16 are the Sixteen Great Kings (ṣodaśa-mahārājulu). A description of these great kings appears in the Śānti Parvan of the Āndhra Mahābhāratamu where the master poet Tikkana composes 16 long Sīsa poems for each ruler. The context there is Lord Kṛṣṇa’s consolation of King Yuddhiṣṭhira who is lamenting the death of slain kings (TKR 168).
II.82 dharma (morality), artha (wealth) and kāma (love) are the three original puruṣārthas or ‘pursuits of man’, here referred to as varga-traya, ‘the three types’. mokṣa or salvation seems to have been added as the fourth and ultimate goal when this formulation was later connected to the catur-āśrama (‘four stage of life’) viz. bramhacāri (student), gṛhastha (house-holder), vānaprasthi (forest-dweller) and sannyāsi (renunciant).
II.83–84 ‘alone’ and ‘in the morning’ have been added to these two asampūrṇa (‘incomplete’) Kanda verses that flow together as one (cf. II.71–72). The king’s impatience seems to be expressed by this narrative momentum (TKR 170).
II.85 bīra-puvvulu are the flowers of the bīra-kāya plant, a type of South Indian squash with bright reddish yellow blossoms. ‘Truth’ here is tattvambu, literally ‘thatness’.
II.86 Hara is Śiva and Hari is Viṣṇu. Uma is the goddess Pārvati, consort of Lord Śiva and mother of Gaṇeśa, the elephant-headed god (kari-mukhuḍu).
II.87 The aṣṭākṣara mantra (cf. Note I.77) is here referred to as the mūla-mantramu or ‘root mantra’. Śrī Mannāru Svāmi is the local name of Viṣṇu in Śrī Villiputtūr. He is worshipped in his form as Vaṭapatraśāyi, literally ‘the One Who Sleeps on a Fig Leaf’. During the intermittent periods between aeons, a baby Viṣṇu is believed to rest on a fig leaf, gently floating atop the primordial waters of creation.
II.88 The word for ‘assembly hall’ is the Persian loan word dīvān (Tel divāṇamu). prelĕḍu durmada andhulu is literally ‘blabbering egotistical blind men’, and ‘disgusted with this world’ is ihamu rosināḍu, literally ‘abhorring this’.
II.89 ‘tremble’ is actually the phrase vaḍa-vaḍa vaḍaki which is to shake violently or rapidly. I have tried to translate this feeling across the whole poem with quick rhythmic phraseology.
II.90 This incredibly sonic verse employs a blast of harsh gutturals (cf. IV.28)—kṣamā khanana kriyā khara khanitra grāhita udyat kiṇa stoma asnigdha karu, literally ‘earth dig work hard spade holding because of calluses mass rough hands’. Later in the verse, a repeated use of the aspirated labial ‘bh’ mellows the effect but preserves the tonal intensity. bhavat bhavana dāsu ‘your temple servant’, and bhūmī bhṛt sabha ‘the king’s court’. TKR suggests that the second phrase is a reference to god as king of the world (see below).
‘How could I disgrace you?’ is ayaśambu mīku kākuṇḍune, literally ‘Won’t the ill-fame be yours?’ This entire poem is based on the Vaiṣṇava belief that we are all servants of god, and that all our actions, good or bad, are absorbed into the Lord. This concept known as the Vaiṣṇava rahasyam (secret) is expanded in the Bhagavad Gīta and plays a critical role in understanding the connection between karma and bhakti. (see TKR 174–75).
II.91 Professor P. Ramanarasimham interprets the last line lerĕ itaralu nī līlakun pātramul as ‘Isn’t there someone better suited for you to play with?’ VVS 122 and TKR 175 agree that pātramulu are taginavāru, those who are fit or qualified, but TKR offers a secondary gloss of veṣa-dhārulu, those who wear costumes, i.e. actors.
Ironically, the humble gardener’s plea is filled with a long list of Sanskrit compounds (cf. I.84). All of these words, however, are appended with the earthy Telugu suffix ‘o’ that has the meaning of ‘or’ or ‘rather’.
II.92 Śrīdevi is another name for Lakṣmi. She is always seen in the company of Lord Viṣṇu (cf. I.1, I.20).
II.96–97 ‘solitary sages’ are ekāṅgulu, as opposed to ‘both sects of Vaiṣṇavas’ who are sāttinas and sāttanis. The former group keeps a lock of hair after tonsuring, while members of the latter do not. ‘versed in the dos and don’ts of religious life’ is vidhi niṣedhamulu erigi.
Like the close of Chapter I, this section also ends with a tasty menu prepared by Viṣṇucitta’s wife. ‘seasoned mixture made with equal parts of cumin-spiced jaggery and tangy tamarind’ is cĕrakaḍamu sābālu ūnpa cĕlagu sambārampu cintapaṇḍu. Here I read sambāram (from Skt sambhāra) as ‘a mixture of spices for seasoning’ (Brown 770), possibly for flavouring the rice to make a sweet and sour rice preparation (a medieval variant on the South India favourite pulihora or tamarind rice?). For a different interpretation see NRS 42. Regarding ‘sweet rice cakes’, see Note I.81.
CHAPTER III
THE DEBATE
III.1 This invocatory poem elegantly contrasts the compassionate and wrathful forms of Lord Viṣṇu. In his Boar (varāha) avatāra, he killed the demon Hiraṇyākṣa who stole the Earth and hid her at the bottom of the Cosmic Ocean (cf. IV.21). The ‘Demon Ox’ is danuja ukṣa, otherwise known as Vṛṣabhāsura. This demon is mentioned in two separate mythological accounts—in the Bhāgavatam he is slain by Krṣṇa, but in the Vĕṅkaṭācala Māhātmyamu he is killed in a duel with Lord Viṣṇu himself. The location of his defeat became known as Vṛṣabhādri, the Ox Hill, in the Vĕṅkaṭa range (cf. IV.1). ‘gentle glance of grace’ is kṛpā vīkṣa ādṛta.
This poem in pure Sanskrit contains a repeated use of the conjunct consonant ‘kṣa’.
III.3 ‘without even informing the king’, vijñapti leka implies that several debaters were entering the palace, so many that the king didn’t need to be informed about every single arrival. ‘he had a special glow about him’ is ati ūrjasvaluḍu auṭa, and ‘his whole being was pervaded with the glory of God’ is hari tana ceto-gati ŏlayun, a line borrowed from the following poem III.4.
As his name rightly suggests, Lord Viṣṇu has entered Viṣṇucitta’s mind, and the erudite exposition that follows must be viewed as the Lord speakin
g through his humble servant. Even Viṣṇucitta’s mannerisms, like the ‘chuckle’ (nagavu) are uncharacteristic of the pious brahman. Also note his sarcastic tone in ‘please, please continue the deliberations’ in III.4, and ‘we might discuss a few things’ emu kŏnni nuḍivĕdamu in III.5, or the sardonic rhetorical question in III.7 ‘What was it that you said?’ nīvu emi aṇṭivi.
III.5 ‘impartial intermediary’ is mādhya-sthyamunan, literally ‘standing in the middle’.
III.6–7 These verses have been combined for narrative clarity. śruti are ‘heard’ or revealed scriptures, i.e. the Vedas; smṛti are ‘remembered’ texts and refer to śāstric or scientific texts composed by individuals, in this case most likely the Dharma-śāstras (TKR 187); and sūtras are gnomic phrases linked together like a ‘thread’, here referring to the authoritative Brahma Sūtras quoted in verse III. 8.
III.8 This highly technical verse is a means for the poet to exhibit his knowledge of scripture and doctrine. The Sāṁkhyans, Advaitins, Pūrva-Mīmāṁsans, Vaiśeṣikas, Buddhists and Cārvākas all represent various schools of Indian philosophy (cf. I.78). The five Brahma Sūtras quoted in the verse are cited below. I have included short explanations that aim to reveal the contextual rationale for each citation, but a deeper analysis of the underlying philosophical concepts is beyond the scope of the present work.
1.1.5 īkṣater nāśabdam [consciousness is the origin of the world]
4.4.21 bhogamātrasāmyaliṅgāc ca [God and souls are equal
only in enjoyment]
3.2.37 phalamata upapatteḥ [the fruits of action come from God]
1.1.3 śāstrayonitvāt [scripture is the source of knowledge]
1.2.3 anupapattes tu na śārīraḥ [individuals do not have the
qualities of God]
‘God is everlasting in all things’ is a Telugu paraphrase nityulu andu ĕlla nityuḍu. The exact Vedic saying has not been traced.
The Giver of the Worn Garland KRISHNADEVARAYA'S AMUKTAMALYADA Page 14
