vir clarissimus—a man of extraordinary brilliance E.g., Cicero, Letters to Atticus 14.22.1.
called Caesar a great man “tanto viro,” Cicero, Letters to Atticus 14.11.1; Velleius Paterculus, History of Rome 2.56.3.
“with claims to power” . . . “unbearable” . . . “gloried in his many great victories” . . . “admired someone who they thought was more than just a man” Nicolaus of Damascus, Life of Caesar Augustus 19.64.
trying to see if there was support Plutarch, Caesar 61.6; Cassius Dio, Roman History 44.11.3; Nicolaus of Damascus, Life of Caesar Augustus 21.73.
Hatred is one of a ruler’s greatest dangers Machiavelli, The Prince, ch. 19.
CHAPTER 5. THE BIRTH OF A PLOT
Or so the best-known source tells the story Plutarch, Caesar 62.8, Brutus 10.3–7.
Our earliest in-depth source for the conspiracy even names Decimus first See p. 82.
Although Decimus said later that he acted to save the Republic Cicero, Letters to Friends 11.10.4.
Cicero’s correspondence includes a few dozen precious letters There are letters between Cicero and the following conspirators: Brutus (Letters to Brutus, two books of twenty-six letters, most of them genuine), Cassius (e.g., Letters to Friends 12.12), Decimus (e.g., Letters to Friends 11.5), Galba (Letters to Friends 10.30), Trebonius (e.g., Letters to Friends 12.16), Minucius Basilus (Letters to Friends 6.5).
Cicero wrote one of those accounts in 44 B.C. Cicero, On Divination 2.23.
“old easygoing master” Cicero, Letters to Friends 15.19.4. Cicero, Letters to Friends, vol. 2, ed. and trans. by D. R. Shackleton Bailey (Cambridge, MA, and London, England: Harvard University Press, 2001): 287.
Brutus underwent a similar conversion, perhaps independently Cassius Dio, Roman History 44.14.2.
perhaps Cassius was the spark Plutarch, Brutus 7.4, 8.2, 10.1; Appian, Civil Wars 2.113; cf. Suetonius, Julius Caesar 80.3–4.
Yon Cassius has a lean and hungry look Shakespeare, Julius Caesar 1.2.194–195.
a Roman portrait bust that has plausibly been identified as Cassius The bust in question is the “pseudo-Corbulo” type. A good example, dated to the second half of the first century A.D., is found in the Montreal Museum of Fine Arts. See also Sheldon Nodelman, “The Portrait of Brutus the Tyrannicide,” Occasional Papers on Antiquities 4: Ancient Portraits in the J. Paul Getty Museum 1 (1987): 57–59 and 59 n. 59.
“the bravest of men” Cicero, Letters to Friends 15.16.3.
“the date” Pseudo-Aurelus Victor, De Virus Illustribus 83.3.
Caesar describes the two campaigns Caesar, Civil War 3.5.3, 3.101.
“I will die of anxiety” Cicero, Letters to Friends 15.19.4.
even merely the concentration of power Cicero, Philippics 2.26.
against awarding a long list of special honors to Caesar Cassius Dio, Roman History 44.8.1.
Cassius had a stronger case Plutarch, Brutus 7.1–5, Caesar 62.4–5; Appian, Civil Wars 2.112; Velleius Paterculus, History of Rome 2.56.3; Cicero, Philippics 8.27. I have relied on the commentary by Pelling, Plutarch, Caesar, 460–61.
a story that Cicero made fun of Suetonius, Julius Caesar 50.2.
lions of Megara Plutarch, Brutus 8.6–7; Caesar 43.1–2, 62.8.
the single-mindedness of a gladiator Appian, Civil Wars 4.133.
all his life Cassius drank only water Seneca, Letters to Lucilius 83.12.
Brutus issued coins See “Libertas: The Coins of Brutus,” http://www.humanities.mq.edu.au/acans/caesar/CivilWars_Libertas.htm, accessed July 27, 2014; M. H. Crawford, Roman Republican Coinage, vol. 1, 455–56, no. 433.
spoke against a proposed dictatorship for Pompey Quintilian, Institutes 9.3.95.
a man who committed murder for the good of the Republic was innocent Quintilian, Institutes 3.6.93.
“Marcus Brutus . . . was respected” Nicolaus of Damascus, Life of Caesar Augustus 26a.100, Bellemore translation modified.
Brutus learned to recognize tyranny, to despise it and to rise against it He was a member of the Academic, that is, Platonist school.
“What then? Don’t you think Brutus will wait for this bit of flesh?” Plutarch, Brutus 8.3, Caesar 62.6.
Plutarch added that Brutus could count on Plutarch, Brutus 8.4.
“If only now you were Brutus,” “If only Brutus were alive,” “Brutus, wake up!” “You aren’t really Brutus!” Plutarch, Brutus 9.5–9; Appian, Civil Wars 2.112; Cassius Dio, Roman History 44.12.3.
“that Republic in which you could not only renew” Cicero, Brutus 331.
These men didn’t want Brutus to die, said Cassius Plutarch, Brutus 10.1–7.
Porcia was said to be the only woman Cassius Dio, Roman History 44.13.1.
Still, the sources ask what anyone might wonder Appian, Civil Wars 2.112.
Brutus, who wrote on the theme of duties within the family Seneca, Letters to Lucilius 95.45.
Brutus and Cassius now recruited Decimus to the conspiracy Plutarch, Brutus 12.5–6.
“a close friend of Caesar” Nicolaus of Damascus, Life of Caesar Augustus 23.84; Velleius Paterculus, History of Rome 2.64.2; Plutarch, Brutus 13; Appian, Civil Wars 2.111; Cassius Dio, Roman History 44.18.1.
Nicolaus actually names Decimus first Nicolaus of Damascus, Life of Caesar Augustus 19.59.
Appian makes him next after Brutus and Cassius Appian, Civil Wars 2.111.
Velleius Paterculus, a Roman soldier-statesman Velleius Paterculus, History of Rome 2.58.1–2.
Other sources name Decimus Cassius Dio, Roman History 44.13.3–4; Eutropius, Abridgement of Roman History 6.7.497; Suetonius, Julius Caesar 80.4.
“neither active nor daring” Plutarch, Brutus 12.5.
one of Caesar’s confidants Appian, Civil Wars 2.111; Velleius Paterculus, History of Rome 64.2.
Caesar named him in his will as heir in the second degree Plutarch, Caesar 64.1; Suetonius, Julius Caesar 83.2.
Caesar unwittingly named other conspirators as guardians as well Suetonius, Julius Caesar 83.2; Cassius Dio, Roman History 44.35.2; Plutarch, Caesar 64.1; Appian, Civil Wars 2.143.
Cicero portrayed him as part of a cause Cicero, Letters to Friends 11.7.3.
claimed descent from the founder of the Republic Cicero, Philippics 2.26.
Decimus’s father and his grandfather Orosius, History Against the Pagans 5.12; Cicero, Letters to Atticus 12.22.2.
his eleven surviving single-authored letters They are: Cicero, Letters to Friends 10.13, 11.1, 11.4, 11.7, 11.9, 11.10, 11.13, 11.13b, 11.20, 11.23, 11.26. Part of a joint letter by Decimus and Plancus to the Magistrates, Senate and People survives; it contains one reference to the Republic (11.13a.2).
“liberating the Republic” Cicero, Letters to Friends 11.10.5.
admirably brief as a writer Cicero, Letters to Friends 11.25.1–2.
thirteen letters by Cicero to Decimus survive Cicero, Letters to Friends 11.5, 11.6, 11.6a, 11.7, 11.8, 11.12, 11.14, 11.15, 11.16, 11.21, 11.22, 11.24, 11.25.
five of them refer to liberty, tyranny, the assassination of Caesar, or the Republic 11.5.2–3, 11.7.2, 11.6a.1, 11.8.1–2, 11.12.1–2.
Decimus was ambitious, competitive, proud, and violent Nicolaus of Damascus, Life of Caesar Augustus 26a.98.
dignitas, a subject that comes up frequently in his correspondence Cicero, Letters to Friends 11.4.2, 11.6a.1–2, 11.8.1.
Decimus wanted fame and greatness Cicero, Letters to Friends 11.4.3.
Decimus was a very brave man Cicero, Letters to Atticus 11.22.1. Note also Decimus’s pride in being fearless: Cicero, Letters to Friends 11.20.1.
Decimus could sneer at Octavian Suetonius, Augustus 2.3.
Gaius Fuficius Fango Cassius Dio, Roman History 48.22.3; Cicero, Letters to Atticus 14.10.2.
Paula Valeria On her brother, Gaius Valerius Triarius, see Bondurant, Decimus 29 and n. 77; Franklin H. Potter, “Political All
iance by Marriage,” Classical World 29.9 (1934): 673–74; Karl-Ludwig Elvers (Bochum), “Valerius, [I 53–54],” Brill’s New Pauly, antiquity volumes edited by Hubert Cancik and Helmuth Schneider, Brill Online, accessed April 20, 2014.
CHAPTER 6. WANTED: ASSASSINS
more of Caesar’s friends than his enemies Seneca, On Anger 3.30.4.
The policy earned gratitude and stirred anger Nicolaus of Damascus, Life of Caesar Augustus 19.61–63.
Nicolaus makes Caesar’s policy of clemency a central grievance Nicolaus of Damascus, Life of Caesar Augustus 19.62–63.
it annoyed the former Pompey supporters Nicolaus of Damascus, Life of Caesar Augustus 19.62.
Cato protested Caesar’s arrogance Plutarch, Cato the Younger 66.2.
“His very power of granting favors” Florus, Epitome of Roman History 2.13.92; cf. Nicolaus of Damascus, Life of Caesar Augustus 19.63; Velleius Paterculus, History of Rome 2.57.1.
the conspiracy was more a matter of court intrigue Nicolaus of Damascus, Life of Caesar Augustus 19.58–65, esp. 60.
petty jealousy Several ancient sources cite jealousy of Caesar as a factor in the conspirators’ motivation: Appian, Civil Wars 2.111.1; Cassius Dio, Roman History 44.1.1; Vellerius Paterculus, History of Rome 2.60.01.
began to insist that Caesar treat him as an equal Caesar, Gallic War 8.52.2; Cicero, Letters to Atticus 7.7.6, 7.13.1; Cassius Dio, Roman History 41.4.3.
“an ardent patriot” Cicero, Letters to Friends 10.28.1.
“a little gift” Cicero, Letters to Friends 12.16.3.
Cicero said that the Republic owed Trebonius Cicero, Philippics 2.27.
Trebonius was the man who, said Cicero Cicero, Philippics 2.34; Plutarch, Antony 13.
he expressed pride in his role in the events of the Ides Cicero, Letters to Atticus 12.16.3–4.
We can’t be sure of either brother’s motives Appian, Civil Wars 2.113 (which confuses the two brothers), 115; Plutarch, Brutus 15; Cicero, Philippics 2.27, cf. Suetonius, Julius Caesar 82; Plutarch, Caesar 66; Plutarch, Brutus 17.45; Cassius Dio, Roman History 44.52.2, 46.49.1
as Caesar claims in his Commentaries Caesar, Gallic Wars 3.1–6.
enough, according to one ancient theory, to drive Galba Suetonius, Galba 3.2.
Galba objected in public Suetonius, Galba 3.2; Valerius Maximus, Memorable Deeds and Sayings 6.2.11; Cicero, Letters to Atticus 6.18.3.
his one surviving letter Cicero, Letters to Friends 10.30.
his moment in the Ardennes Forest Caesar, Gallic Wars 6.29–30.
perhaps he was the same man Orosius, History Against the Pagans 6.15.8.
he made him settle for a sum of money Cassius Dio, Roman History 43.47.5.
It was this, we are told, that made him join Appian, Civil Wars 2.113; Cicero, Letters to Friends 6.15; Cassius Dio, Roman History 43.47.5.
calls Cimber one of Caesar’s “fellow soldiers” Cicero, Letters to Atticus 6.12.2; Seneca, On Anger 3.30.5; Appian, Civil Wars 3.2; Plutarch, Brutus 19.2.
Cicero said afterward that Cimber Cicero, Philippics 2.27.
“Would I, who cannot tolerate my wine” Seneca, Letters to Lucilius 83.12.
the sources report a total of more than sixty or even more than eighty Suetonius, Julius Caesar 80.4; Orosius, History Against the Pagans 6.17.2; Eutropius, Abridgement of Roman History 6.25, 80; Nicolaus of Damascus, Life of Caesar Augustus 19.59.
“many people were angry at him because they had been saved by him” Nicolaus of Damascus, Life of Caesar Augustus 19.62.
Cicero successfully pleaded his case Cicero, For Ligarius.
Although Caesar personally disliked Ligarius Plutarch, Cicero 39.6.
warnings to be careful who he pardoned Cicero, For Ligarius 16.
Ligarius was so eager for revenge Plutarch, Brutus 11.
potentially represented a huge transfer of wealth Cassius Dio, Roman History, 42.51.2. On Caesar’s property confiscations, see Gelzer, Caesar, 283–84, n. 1; Zvi Yavetz, Julius Caesar and His Public Image (Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press, 1983), 140–41; Elizabeth Rawson, “Caesar: Civil War and Dictatorship,” in J. A. Crook, Andrew Lintott, and Elizabeth Rawson, eds., The Cambridge Ancient History, 2nd ed., vol. 9, The Last Age of the Roman Republic, 146–43 B.C. (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1994), 449–50.
Brutus later complained bitterly Appian, Civil Wars 2.139–41.
The other Pompey supporters among the conspirators Rubrius Ruga might possibly be the Lucius Rubrius who was People’s Tribune in 49 B.C., but also possibly the Marcus Rubrius who was with Cato at Utica. Two other senators were Caecilius Bucilianus and his brother (name unknown). Then there were two men who might be either senators or knights, Sextius Naso and Marcus Spurius.
They included Gaius Cassius of Parma Another conspirator who cannot be assigned to any group is one Petronius—a mere name to us.
Now he told Brutus that he thought civil war was even worse Plutarch, Brutus 12.3, trans. D. Sedley, “The Ethics of Brutus and Cassius,” Journal of Roman Studies 87 (1997): 44.
In the same conversation, Brutus engaged one Statilius Plutarch, Brutus 12.3–4; trans. Sedley, “Ethics of Brutus and Cassius,” 44, modified.
He denied the charge Cicero, Philippics 2.25.
Caesar had no fear of him Cicero, Letters to Atticus 13.37.2.
for trust and goodwill by both Brutus and Cassius Plutarch, Brutus 12.1.
In their judgment, Cicero lacked daring Plutarch, Brutus 12.2.
Antony, they said, was a supporter of monarchy Plutarch, Antony 13.1, Brutus 18.3; Appian, Civil Wars 2.114.
never swore an oath Plutarch, Brutus 12.8; Appian, Civil Wars 2.114, 139; Nicolaus of Damascus, Life of Caesar Augustus 23.81.
every conspirator revealed his own grudge Nicolaus of Damascus, Life of Caesar Augustus 19.65–66.
Brutus hoped for a change of heart on Antony’s part Plutarch, Antony 13.2, Brutus 18.4–5; Appian, Civil Wars 2.113.
So he alone of the conspirators opposed killing Antony Plutarch, Brutus 18.3–6.
Lucius Junius Brutus, did more than drive out the king Livy, History of Rome 1.59–60.
“No friend ever served me and no enemy ever wronged me” Plutarch, Sulla 38.4.
They considered other venues for the assassination Nicolaus of Damascus, Life of Caesar Augustus 80.4; Suetonius, Julius Caesar 80.4.
Caesar formally dismissed his Spanish bodyguard Suetonius, Julius Caesar 86.1; Appian, Civil Wars 2.107 and 114; Cassius Dio, Roman History 44.7.4.
senators and the knights Appian, Civil Wars 2.107, 109; Suetonius, Julius Caesar 86.1; Plutarch, Caesar 57.3; Cassius Dio, Roman History 44.7.4, 44.15.2; Velleius Paterculus, History of Rome 2.57.1.
Cicero worried publicly about assassination plots against Caesar Cicero, For Marcellus 21.
Caesar showed mercy by sparing Philemon from torture Suetonius, Julius Caesar 74.1.
Cicero, who defended Deiotarus The speech still exists: Cicero, On Behalf of King Deiotarus.
Aulus Caecina published a pamphlet Suetonius, Julius Caesar 75.4–5.
Caesar’s sources in Rome denounced conspiracies Plutarch, Caesar 62.6; Suetonius, Julius Caesar 75.5.
Caesar refused to hear information about the conspiracy Cassius Dio, Roman History 44.15.1.
he sometimes acted in the absence of reliable intelligence For example, when Caesar invaded Britain, Caesar, Gallic War 6.20–21.
“I am not much in fear of these fat, long-haired fellows” Plutarch, Caesar 62.9; cf. Plutarch, Brutus 8.2; Antony 11.3; Sayings of Kings and Generals 206e.
He had too much faith in Brutus’s character Plutarch, Brutus 8.1.
Caesar complained to his friends about Cassius Plutarch, Caesar 62.69.
He brushed off Brutus’s accusers Plutarch, Caesar 62.6; Plutarch, Brutus 8.3.
He put too much trust in the oath, some said Suetonius, J
ulius Caesar 86.1.
wasn’t so much in his interest as in the Republic’s Suetonius, Julius Caesar 86.2.
“the pleasure of deception” Roberta Wohlstetter, “Slow Pearl Harbours and the Pleasures of Deception,” in Robert L. Pfaltzgraff Jr., Uri Ra’anan, and Warren Milberg, eds., Intelligence Policy and National Security. (Hamden, CT: Archon Books, 1981), 23–34.
Caesar was so depressed Suetonius, Julius Caesar 86.1.
a Roman senator was supposed to be easy to approach Cicero, On the Command of Cnaeus Pompey 41; Tacitus, Annals 2.2.4.
he was attacked in Rome by men with hidden daggers Appian, Civil Wars 1.55–56; Plutarch, Sulla 8–9, Marius 35.
give up his bodyguard even while he was still dictator Appian, Civil Wars 1.3, 103–4.
“straightforward by nature” Nicolaus of Damascus, Life of Caesar Augustus 67; my translation, with help from Toher.
But when they in turn asked him to reestablish his bodyguard Appian, Civil Wars 2.107, 109; Suetonius, Julius Caesar 86.1; Plutarch, Caesar 57.3; Cassius Dio, Roman History 44.7.4, 44.15.2; Velleius Paterculus, The History of Rome 2.57.1.
“even though he had no bodyguard” Cassius Dio, Roman History 44.15.2.
dinner with his Master of the Horse Suetonius, Julius Caesar 87; Plutarch, Caesar 63.4; Appian, Civil Wars 2.115. On dining customs in Rome see M. B. Roller, Dining Posture in Ancient Rome: Bodies, Values and Status (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 2006).
While reclining, Caesar added personal greetings Plutarch, Caesar 63.4; Suetonius, Augustus 45.12.
Caesar’s answer, according to Plutarch, was an unexpected death Plutarch, Caesar 63.7.
a sudden one, says Appian Appian, Civil Wars 2.115.
sudden and unexpected, says Suetonius Suetonius, Julius Caesar, 87.
Suetonius adds that Caesar had discussed the subject Suetonius, Julius Caesar 87.
CHAPTER 7. CAESAR LEAVES HOME
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