by E. B. Brown
In the event that a woman decided to divorce her husband, she could set his belongings outside of their yehakin and the marriage was considered ended. The husband had to allow the wife to go, even if he objected. Opechacanough lost his favorite wife to the wooing of a lesser Weroance of the Quiyoughcohannock named Pipsco. There was absolutely nothing Opechacanough could do about getting his wife back, but he did replace Pipsco as Weroance and therefore diminished his power and social standing – but Pipsco kept the woman.
What is significant to remember is that each of the Powhatan tribes was a self-contained, functioning community, and each tribe maintained their own customs, despite being under the umbrella of Powhatan rule. Return to text
Note 22: Yes, boatloads of women really were sent to Jamestown to be married to the men
The men who settled Jamestown held strictly to the belief in a patriarchal society, and it was not long after they arrived that they planned to recreate the way they had lived in England. Although two women arrived in the second Jamestown supply mission, and a few women continued to be transported on subsequent supply runs, the total number of women remained low and in 1619 the Virginia Company of England began making a direct effort to import marriageable women into the coloy. The first shipment consisted of ninety young women, recruited and selected due to such favorable characteristics as beauty, education, and work ethic. In 1621 an additional fifty-seven women were sent. Procuring a wife was no small matter, and it was something only attainable by those who had enough money to secure it. An imported wife would cost a man 120 pounds per head of tobacco, which was roughly six times what an indentured servant might cost. Return to text
Note 23: Getting your brains bashed in, just like John Smith almost did before he was saved by Pocahontas – or so he says, anyway.
The English arrived at Jamestown in May 1607. During the winter of 1607, John Smith was captured by during a hunting party led by Opechancanough and was displayed at multiple Pamukey villages until finally he was brought to Chief Powhatan at Weromocomoco. According to an account written by Smith, first he was interrogated by Powhatan. Things did not go well during the questioning and Smith’s head was placed on two stones and he was about to have his brains bashed in by a warrior with a club, under the direction of Chief Powhatan. Smith further claims that Powhatan’s favorite daughter, Pocahontas, intervened on his behalf and actually laid her head upon his, preventing the warrior from killing Smith.
Historians disagree over Smith’s account of the story, in large part due to Smith’s own inconsistencies in telling it. When he first discussed meeting Chief Powhatan at Werowocomoco and his interactions with the tribe, no mention of Pocahontas saving his life was made. It was not until after he returned to England in 1609 that he described the event and added in the details of the young girl’s intervention. His portrayal of Pocahontas varies according to various written records, making her age anywhere from 9-12 in different tales. To further complicate matters, there is mention of the same sort of thing happening when Smith was captured in South America on an expedition, also involving the young daughter of a Chief.
Although the story is quite dramatic, and when John Smith retold it seventeen years after the fact it became even more so, it was probably not an attempt on his life. Descriptions of the “clubbing” event actually point to evidence that it was an “adoption” ceremony, meant to bring John Smith into the fold as a “son”, and therefore, servant of Powhatan. Furthermore, Pocahontas would have not have had the political influence nor standing to interrupt an execution if Powhatan choose to eliminate someone; women would not have even been present at the meeting to discuss it, especially a child of Pocahontas's age. Return to text
Note 24: The Church at Martin’s Hundred
The original church at Martin’s Hundred was likely to have been built in Wolstenholme Towne, which was central to the community. According to findings of archaeologists during excavations, the original church was likely lost due to erosion by the James River, and a second church was mentioned in records by 1630. This second church was likely built in a similar fashion to the one in Jamestown, (of which there were also several versions in the span of the seventeenth century) which was built on a foot-wide foundation of cobblestones with a brick tower, and finished with either wood or brick for the remainder of the structure. Return to text
Note 25: Nemattanew killing of Elder Morgan
Nemattanew was losing favor with Opechancanough by 1621 or 1622. A short time before the coordinated Great Assault of 1622, Nemattanew was noted to be in the presence of a settler named Morgan, who was looking to trade some goods. Nemattanew arranged to take Morgan to a Pamukey village for the trade, and the man named Morgan was never seen alive again. A few days later, Nemattanew returned to Morgan’s plantation home wearing Morgan’s hat, and was subsequently apprehended by the English as a suspect in Morgan’s disappearance. During the resultant scuffle, Nemattanew was shot by one of the settlers and killed. Some historians believe that this was the event that precipitated the Great Assault of 1622 which occurred about two weeks later. However, I tend to favor those who believe that Opechancanough had been planning the attack well before the death of Nemattanew, due to the sheer massive amount of coordination between dozens of tribes that had to occur in order to attack the English settlements all on one day. Return to text
Note 26: Nemattanew’s dying request
During the years of battle between the English and Powhatan, Nemattanew was involved in many skirmishes and battles. Although he was often exposed to gunfire, he had a habit of emerging unscathed from battle and soon drew the reputation of being immortal and “invincible” to the English weapons. At gatherings he wore the wings of a swan on his shoulder and was elaborately decorated, which led to his being called “Jack of a Feather” by the English. He was considered in such high esteem among his people as a War Chief and was thought to be almost otherworldly, so much so that when he was killed by the English, he made a dying request to be buried on English land so that his people would never know he was felled by their bullets, and that he was, in fact, not immortal. Return to text
Note 27: Old Norse Runes and pointing the way through travels (or time!)
The inspiration for runes pointing the way for time travel came from an Old Norse symbol called the Vegvisir. There is no known record of what it actually means, however it is described in the Huld Manuscript as a “Path Guide” for helping the bearer navigate through storms or other danger.
“If this sign is carried, one will never lose one’s way in storms or bad weather, even when the way is not known.” Huld Manuscript, p.60
The description of the Vegvisir can be interpreted in many ways, according to what amount of spiritual or practical emphasis one placed on it. Much more than just a navigational instrument, it likely symbolized not just safe travel over seas or storms, but through the trials and tribulations of life as well. (click & hold image to enlarge)
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Note 28: The Great Assault of 1622 (aka The Indian Massacre of 1622)
After the marriage of Chief Powhatan’s daughter, Pocahontas, to John Rolfe in 1614, there was period of peace between the colonists and the Powhatan that lasted until about 1617. At that time a series of events unfolded that precipitated the eventual mass attack. The first event was the death of Pocahontas on a ship while she was en route to return to Jamestown. Her marriage to John Rolfe had advanced the peace between Powhatan and the settlers, and after her death, there was no other marriage alliance to continue that valuable connection. Shortly after her death, Chief Powhatan passed away. His brother, Opitchpam, briefly assumed rule, but it was not long before Powhatan's other brother, Opechcanough, took control.
Well known for his distrust of the English, Opechcanough planned to annihilate the English starting as early as 1620-1621. He arranged a massive gathering of all Powhatan tribes for a ceremonial re-burial of Powhatan’s bones, and around that time he changed his name to Mangopeesom
on to signify an important change in his life. It was during this gathering that he likely began coordination of the massive attack, bringing together nearly thirty tribes in order to plan the assault.
Opechacanough was a brilliant strategist. He kept plans for the maneuver closely guarded, and as a result he was able to take the English completely by surprise. He ensured that relations remained unchanged between the settlers and English for a period of time while he plotted, encouraging his people to keep peace with the English in order to catch them unaware. Powhatans continued to interact with the English by trading, working for the English, and by hunting for hire. Up until the day of the Massacre, it was common for Powhatans to visit the English towns and even share meals and social events with the English.
On March 22, 1622, more than thirty Powhatan tribes under command of Opechcancough attacked every settlement along the James River in a massive coordinated attack. The plantations (such as Martin’s Hundred) were spread out so far from each other that the settlers would not have noticed that an inordinate number of Indians were working and visiting settlements that day. Surviving colonists describe that the Indians came unarmed, and some even ate breakfast with their victims prior to taking up any weapon they could use to slaughter the English with. Colonists were killed with their own tools, guns, knives, and anything that the Indians could find. Houses were burned, livestock were killed, and the bodies of the dead were mutilated before the Indians retreated. In the span of a few hours, more than 300 colonists were killed in 24 different English settlements along the James River, eliminating almost a third of the English population. Jamestown itself was saved only by the warning of a young Indian boy (debatably known as Chanco) who lived with a colonist named Richard Pace.
The Great Assault did not have the effect that Opechcanough expected. He reasoned that the English would see that they had been beaten, and that they would accept their subservience to the Powhatan and fall in line with his rule. Although the English abandoned many of their settlements and clustered together in fortified places such as Jamestown, the incident began a ten-year period of warfare known as the Second Anglo-Powhatan War. Return to text
Note 29: Captain William Tucker
William Tucker was a landowner and an elected member of the first House of Burgesses at Jamestown in 1619. Return to text
Note 30: The Poisoning
In May 22 of 1623, Captain William Tucker arranged a peace treaty meeting on neutral ground on the Potomac River, during which Dr. John Potts served the Indians a poison-laced drink. The armed Englishmen then fired into the crowd, killing more than 250 Powhatans. The English returned to Jamestown with a collections of scalps, bragging that they had killed Opechacanough, however that was later found to be false. Return to text
Note 31: Blue eyed Indians in the Tidewater region
During the early 1600s various explorers made mention of tribes of Indians who had European features such as blond hair and blue eyes, or who spoke English. In 1696, French Huguenot settlers who lived along the Tar River reported meeting Tuscaroras with blond hair and blue eyes.
Later in 1701, a surveyor named John Lawson found a Hatteras tribe that claimed they used to live on Roanoke Island and also claimed some of their ancestors were white settlers from Roanoke who “spoke from a book”, and he further made note that many of the tribesmen had blue or gray eyes.
A farther Confirmation of this we have from the Hatteras Indians, who either then lived on Ronoak-Island, or much frequented it. These tell us, that several of their Ancestors were white People, and could talk in a Book, as we do; the Truth of which is confirm'd by gray Eyes being found frequently amongst these Indians, and no others. They value themselves extremely for their Affinity to the English, and are ready to do them all friendly Offices. It is probable, that this Settlement miscarry'd for want of timely Supplies from England; or thro' the Treachery of the Natives, for we may reasonably suppose that the English were forced to cohabit with them, for Relief and Conversation; and that in process of Time, they conform'd themselves to the Manners of their Indian Relations. (John Lawson, A New Voyage to Carolina, 1709)
Was this evidence that the people of the Roanoake Colony sought refuge with the local tribes and eventually assimilated, disappearing from the historical record? Or was the source of the European features from an entirely different culture to visit Virginia? Return to text
Note 32: The Aftermath of the Great Assault
After the Great Assault of 1622, those who remained alive either fled to England or consolidated into fortified towns such as Jamestown. The event sent the colony into a state of chaos during which the Virginia Colony was stripped of governing power and the Crown took over control of the colony under King James I. The next few months marked a period of upheaval during which the English consolidated resources and came up with a plan to rebuild and attack the Powhatan. Return to text
Note 33: Headright property & being a buffer
In the aftermath of the events of 1622, many outlying plantations were abandoned or left vacant. As the English regained their strength and numbers, they enlisted converted Christian Indians or indentured servants to live on the land closest to the hostile tribes, creating a “buffer” should more attacks occur. Although Winn was not a Christian convert, he did serve as a liaison between the English and the Powhatan, and his status would have given him reason to settle on English land with the permission of the Governor. Return to text
Note 34: On relations between sides after 1622: constant conflict
Both sides engaged in a campaign to damage the other, choosing to attack in a way that would hurt more than death; by starving each other out. It was common for crops to be burned, treaties to be reached, and then crops to be re-burned again before the food could be harvested. Return to text
Note 35: Hostages and negotiations after 1622
At least twenty women presumed dead in the Massacre were actually taken captive by Opechacanough, including the wives of Nathanial Jeffries and Ralph Dickenson. In exchange for a temporary truce, Opechcanough sent a captive named Mistress Boyse to Jamestown, dressed as an “Indian Queen” in all the finery of pearl necklaces, copper medallions, furs, and feathers. Both sides continued to use the hostages as an end to their means, and not necessarily with the priority of their safe return.
In May 1623 Captain Tucker arranged a meeting under the guise of a peace treaty and negotiation of return of hostages, however it was only a guise to poison and attack Opechcanough and his people. For the following year, both sides attacked each other, and the hostages suffered along with the Indians, seeming to be only pawns to the English.
Dr. Potts (the mastermind behind the peace-treaty poisoning) eventually arranged for the release of a half-dozen hostages in exchange for a few pounds of trade beads. One of the returned hostages was Jane Dickenson, who Dr. Potts held in indentured servitude to fulfill the last three year’s of her dead husband’s contract; he also insisted she repay him for the trade beads given to ensure her release. Return to text
Note 36: On cultures blending and disappearing throughout history
Many groups of people are briefly documented and then disappear entirely from the written record, and that is part of the fascination I had with writing in the Time Walkers world. The endless possibilities of what happened and why might never be answered, however speculation abounds.
With so many explorers looking for new lands, it seems a certainty that others may have arrived that were never documented. In 1696, 390 French Huguenots had a settlement and lived about twenty miles north of the falls of the James River, and little is known of their fate other than they may have intermarried with the English and blended into English society. Even groups of people that are well documented have disappeared entirely from the historical record, such as the Roanoke Colony and the Paspahegh people, so it is not unreasonable to wonder where exactly all those people went and how they factor into the records of history. Return to text
Note 37:
Brattahlid
Erik the Red was a Norse explorer who was banished from Iceland near the end of the tenth century. From written accounts in the Icelandic Sagas, it appeared that Erik had a volatile temper, as he was twice banished for murder before he ended up in Greenland. He eventually left Iceland entirely and established a Viking colony in southeast Greenland called Estribyggo (Eastern Settlement), dubbing his personal estate with the name Brattahlid.
Once settled in Greenland, he spent several years exploring, finding that the land was particularly suitable for raising livestock. His exile from Iceland expired in 985, so he returned to Iceland and recruited people to come live at Greenland. At least two colonies, the Eastern Settlement (Estribyggo) and the Western Settlement (Vestribyggo) were active until the late fifteenth century, during which time the colony was mysteriously abandoned and lost to history. Return to text
Note 38: Eleanor Dare and Roanoke
Eleanor Dare was the daughter of John White, the Governor of the Roanoke Colony, and member of the ill-fated Lost Colony. She gave birth to the first English child in Virginia on August 18, 1587, and subsequently named her Virginia Dare. By 1590, the Colony was found deserted and the fate of the colonists was unknown.
There are numerous theories regarding what ultimately happened to the people of the Lost Colony. When John Smith arrived at Jamestown in 1607, Chief Powhatan claimed that the Roanoke settlers went to live with the Chesapeake, and furthermore, that they were all dead because he had extermined the Chesapeake people. Although Powhatan showed Smith objects that had belonged to the colonists, Powhatan would change his story to later deny killing the colonists. Did Powhatan initially claim to have killed the colonists in order to show John Smith his superiority over the English, and did he later recant his claim to facilitate peace? Powhatan’s motives are unclear, as is the truth of the matter.
