44. Barry, The Great Influenza, 365.
IV: A FEAR AND PANIC: INFLUENZA AND AMERICAN SOCIETY
1. Hoehling, The Great Epidemic, 119–120; Crosby, America’s Forgotten Pandemic, 11; Collier, The Plague of the Spanish Lady, 183.
2. Crosby, America’s Forgotten Pandemic, 264.
3. Alan M. Kraut, “Immigration, Ethnicity, and the Pandemic,” Public Health Reports, vol. 125, Supplement 3 (2010): “Influenza Pandemic in the United States,” 130, www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2862341.
4. Ibid., 125, 128.
5. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, Pandemic Influenza, 6.
6. George Bedborough, Arms and the Clergy, 1914–1918 (London: Pioneer Press, 1934), 21.
7. David T. Morgan, “The Revivalist as Patriot: Billy Sunday and World War I,” Journal of Presbyterian History (1962–1985), 51, no. 2 (Summer 1973), 203, 209; Frederick C. Giffin, “Billy Sunday: The Evangelist as ‘Patriot,’ ” Social Science, 48, no. 4 (Autumn 1973), 220; Joseph E. Persico, “The Great Swine Flu Epidemic of 1918,” American Heritage Magazine, 27, no. 4 (June 1976), www.americanheritage.com/print/53422.
8. Christine M. Kreiser, “1918 Spanish Influenza Outbreak: The Enemy Within,” History Net, October 27, 2006, www.historynet.com/1918-spanish-influenza-outbreak-the-enemy-within.htm; Crosby, America’s Forgotten Pandemic, 216.
9. Iezzoni, Influenza 1918, 67.
10. “Think Influenza Came in U-Boat,” New York Times, September 19, 1918.
11. Collier, The Plague of the Spanish Lady, 166–167; Persico, “The Great Swine Flu Epidemic of 1918”; Pettit and Bailie, A Cruel Wind, 189; Barry, The Great Influenza, 343.
12. Crosby, America’s Forgotten Pandemic, 74.
13. Pettit and Bailie, A Cruel Wind, 131.
14. Richard Koszarski, “Flu Season: Moving Picture World Reports on Pandemic Influenza, 1918–19,” Film History, 17, no. 4 (2005), 469.
15. Stephen J. Leonard, “The 1918 Influenza Outbreak: An Unforgettable Legacy,” Denver Post, May 3, 2009; Barry, The Great Influenza, 345; Julian A. Navarro, “Influenza in 1918: An Epidemic in Images,” Public Health Reports, vol. 125, Supplement 3 (2010): “Influenza Pandemic in the United States,” 12, www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2862330.
16. Collier, The Plague of the Spanish Lady, 76; Iezzoni, Influenza 1918, 141–142.
17. Tom Quinn, Flu: A Social History of Influenza (London: New Holland Publishers, 2008), 141; Collier, The Plague of the Spanish Lady, 77.
18. Hoehling, The Great Epidemic, 62, 81; Kirsty Duncan, Hunting the 1918 Flu (Toronto: University of Toronto Press, 2003), 12; Kenneth A. White, “Pittsburgh in the Great Epidemic of 1918,” Western Pennsylvania Historical Magazine, 68, no. 3 (July 1985), 227.
19. Nancy Tomes, “ ‘Destroyer and Teacher’: Managing the Masses During the 1918–1919 Influenza Pandemic,” Public Health Reports, vol. 125, Supplement 3 (2010): “Influenza Pandemic in the United States,” 55, www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2862334; “Experts Disagree on Epidemic Here,” New York Times, October 7, 1918.
20. Leonard, “The 1918 Influenza Outbreak”; Collier, The Plague of the Spanish Lady, 194.
21. Iezzoni, Influenza 1918, 128; Barry, The Great Influenza, 350.
22. Collier, The Plague of the Spanish Lady, 193, 194; Hoehling, The Great Epidemic, 161; Iezzoni, Influenza 1918, 84, 161.
23. Crosby, America’s Forgotten Pandemic, 102; Kirsten Moore, “Medical Manipulation: Public Health as a Political Tool in the 1918–19 Influenza Epidemic in San Francisco,” Voces Novae, 3, no. 1 (2011), journals.chapman.edu/ojs/index.php/VocesNovae/article/view/212/545.
24. Leonard, “The 1918 Influenza Outbreak”; Hoehling, The Great Epidemic, 101, 103; Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, Pandemic Influenza, 7.
25. French, “The Clinical Features of the Influenza Epidemic of 1918–19,” 92–93.
26. “New York Prepared for Influenza Siege,” New York Times, September 19, 1918.
27. White, “Pittsburgh in the Great Epidemic of 1918,” 225.
28. Barry, The Great Influenza, 355; Eileen A. Lynch, “The Flu of 1918,” Pennsylvania Gazette, November–December 1998, www.upenn.edu/gazette/1198/lynch.html; Davies, Catching Cold, 92; imageO-rubylane.s3.amazonaws.com.shops.ctyankeeantiques/25-0430B.2L.jpg?45.
29. Collier, The Plague of the Spanish Lady, 198; Iezzoni, Influenza 1918, 73, 119; Sarah Cummings, “Spanish Influenza Outbreak, 1918,” International World History Project, history-world.org/spanish_influenza_of_1918.htm.
30. Hoehling, The Great Epidemic, 72.
31. Persico, “The Great Swine Flu Epidemic of 1918.”
32. Ibid.; Hoehling, The Great Epidemic, 135; Lynch, “The Flu of 1918.”
33. Lynch, “The Flu of 1918”; Pettit and Bailie, A Cruel Wind, 111.
34. Iezzoni, Influenza 1918, 134, 135.
35. Davies, Catching Cold, 84; Barry, The Great Influenza, 132; Iezzoni, Influenza 1918, 148.
36. Iezzoni, Influenza 1918, 148, 149; Crosby, America’s Forgotten Pandemic, 83.
37. Hoehling, The Great Epidemic, 147.
38. Ibid., 90.
39. “Spanish Influenza Much like Grippe,” New York Times, September 22, 1918; White, “Pittsburgh in the Great Epidemic of 1918,” 236.
40. Iezzoni, Influenza 1918, 84; Kolata, Flu, 53; Davies, Catching Cold, 86.
41. Alexandra Minna Stern et al., “ ‘Better Off in School’: School Medical Inspection as a Public Health Strategy During the 1918–1919 Influenza Pandemic in the United States,” Public Health Reports, vol. 125, Supplement 3 (2010): “Influenza Pandemic in the United States,” 64, www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2862335.
42. Collier, The Plague of the Spanish Lady, 157; Stern, “ ‘Better Off in School,’ ” 67.
43. Stern, “ ‘Better Off in School,’ ” 67.
44. Kraut, “Immigration, Ethnicity, and the Pandemic,” 129.
45. Iezzoni, Influenza 1918, 66.
46. “The Great Pandemic: The United States in 1918–1919,” www.flu.gov/pandemic/history/1918/your_state/southeast/dc; Iezzoni, Influenza 1918, 154–155.
47. Iezzoni, Influenza 1918, 120.
48. Francis Russell, “A Journal of the Plague: The 1918 Influenza,” in The Great Interlude: Neglected Events and Persons from the First World War to the Depression (New York: McGraw-Hill, 1964), 37.
49. Bristow, “ ‘It’s as Bad as Anything Can Be,’ ” 139.
50. Laurie Garrett, “The Next Pandemic?” Foreign Affairs, July–August 2005, www.foreignaffairs.com/articles/2005-07-01/next-pandemic; Pettit and Bailie, A Cruel Wind, 149; Iezzoni, Influenza 1918, 272.
51. Phillips, “Influenza Pandemic.”
52. Iezzoni, Influenza 1918, 157; Edward Robb Ellis, Echoes of Distant Thunder: Life in the United States, 1914–1918 (New York: Coward, McCann & Geoghegan, 1975), 468–469.
53. Barry, The Great Influenza, 348; Hoehling, The Great Epidemic, 115; Lynch, “The Flu of 1918”; Quinn, Flu, 145.
54. Barry, The Great Influenza, 339–340; Pettit and Bailie, A Cruel Wind, 43.
55. Byerly, “The U.S. Military and the Influenza Pandemic of 1918–1919”; Collier, The Plague of the Spanish Lady, 102, 103.
56. Collier, The Plague of the Spanish Lady, 170.
57. Ibid., 195; Barry, The Great Influenza, 342.
58. White, “Pittsburgh in the Great Epidemic of 1918,” 229; Hoehling, The Great Epidemic, 62; “Influenza 1918,” American Experience, complete program transcript, PBS, www.pbs.org/wgbh/americanexperience/features/transcript/influenza-transcript.
59. Crosby, America’s Forgotten Pandemic, 51.
60. Ibid., 7.
61. Barry, The Great Influenza, 142.
62. Arlene W. Keeling, “ ‘Alert to the Necessities of the Emergency’: U.S. Nursing During the 1918 Influenza Pandemic,” Public Health Reports, vol.
125, Supplement 3 (2010): “Influenza Pandemic in the United States,” 109, www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2862339.
63. Dorothy Deming, “Influenza—1918: Reliving the Great Epidemic,” American Journal of Nursing, 57, no. 10 (October 1957), 1309.
64. Kraut, “Immigration, Ethnicity, and the Pandemic,” 128; Miles Ott et al., “Lessons Learned from the 1918–1919 Influenza Pandemic in Minneapolis and St. Paul, Minnesota,” Public Health Reports, 122, no. 6 (November–December 2007), 804, www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC1997248.
65. Deming, “Influenza—1918,” 1309.
66. Iezzoni, Influenza 1918, 123–124.
67. Hoehling, The Great Epidemic, 98; “Asks Experts’ Aid to Check Epidemic,” New York Times, October 13, 1918.
68. Hoehling, The Great Epidemic, 98.
V: TO THE BITTER END
1. Byerly, Fever of War, 108.
2. Ibid., 109.
3. Crosby, America’s Forgotten Pandemic, 165–166.
4. Thomas Fleming, The Illusion of Victory: America in World War I (New York: Basic Books, 2004), 118–119.
5. Ibid., 305.
6. Byerly, Fever of War, 114; John J. Pershing, My Experiences in the World War, 2 vols. (New York: Frederick A. Stokes Co., 1931), 2:327; Gregor Dallas, 1918: War and Peace (New York: Overlook Press, 2001), 100.
7. Byerly, Fever of War, 118.
8. David McCullough, Truman (New York: Simon & Schuster, 1992), 136.
9. David W. Tschanz, “Plague of the Spanish Lady,” MilitaryHistoryOnline.com, December 11, 2011, www.militaryhistoryonline.com/wwi/articles/plagueofspanishlady.aspx.
10. Lyn Macdonald, The Roses of No Man’s Land (New York: Atheneum, 1989), 287, 288.
11. Ibid., 284–285.
12. Ralph Raico, “The Blockade and Attempted Starvation of Germany,” Mises Daily, May 7, 2010, mises.org/library/blockade-and-attempted-starvation-germany.
13. Tschanz, “Plague of the Spanish Lady.”
14. Ibid.; David Clay Large, Berlin (New York: Basic Books, 2000), 133–134.
15. Peter Loewenberg, “Psychohistorical Origins of the Nazi Youth Cohort,” American Historical Review, 76, no. 5 (December 1971), 1457–1502, www.history.ucsb.edu/faculty/marcuse/classes/201/articles/71LoewenbergOriginsNaziYouthCohortAHR.pdf, 1473, 1477.
16. Pettit and Bailie, A Cruel Wind, 74; Tschanz, “Plague of the Spanish Lady”; Richard M. Watt, The Kings Depart: The Tragedy of Germany; Versailles and the German Revolution (New York: Simon & Schuster, 1968), 150; Toland, No Man’s Land, 499; Raico, “The Blockade and Attempted Starvation of Germany.”
17. Bombardt and Brown, Potential Influenza Effects on Military Populations, 14; Crosby, America’s Forgotten Pandemic, 71, 160.
18. Byerly, “The U.S. Military and the Influenza Pandemic of 1918–1919”; Crosby, America’s Forgotten Pandemic, 49.
19. Collier, The Plague of the Spanish Lady, 73.
20. Barry, The Great Influenza, 307. Italics added.
21. Ibid., 307.
22. Collier, The Plague of the Spanish Lady, 75.
23. David M. Kennedy, Over Here: The First World War and American Society (New York: Oxford University Press, 1980), 189.
24. Bristow, “ ‘It’s as Bad as Anything Can Be,’ ” 136; Crosby, America’s Forgotten Pandemic, 129.
25. Crosby, America’s Forgotten Pandemic, 127; Hoehling, The Great Epidemic, 39; Honigsbaum, Living with Enza, 73.
26. Crosby, America’s Forgotten Pandemic, 131–132.
27. Ibid., 133; Honigsbaum, Living with Enza, 74.
28. Persico, “The Great Swine Flu Epidemic of 1918”; “Armistice—the End of World War I, 1918,” EyeWitness to History, 2004, www.eyewitnesstohistory.com/armistice.htm; C. N. Trueman, “November 11th 1918,” History Learning Site, March 6, 2015, www.historylearningsite.co.uk/world-war-one/november-11th-1918.
29. McCullough, Truman, 134; Persico, Eleventh Month, Eleventh Day, Eleventh Hour, 354, 364; “When This Lousy War Is Over,” World War One Photos, www.ww1photos.com/WhenThisLousyWarIsOver.html.
30. Dallas, 1918, 120–121; Martin Gilbert, The First World War: A Complete History (New York: Henry Holt, 1994), 501.
31. Collier, The Plague of the Spanish Lady, 235.
32. Persico, Eleventh Month, Eleventh Day, Eleventh Hour, 364, 366, 369.
33. Ibid., 364; Quinn, Flu, 148; Dallas, 1918, 199.
34. Pettit and Bailie, A Cruel Wind, 145.
35. A. Scott Berg, Wilson (New York: G. P. Putnam’s Sons, 2013), 583.
36. Margaret MacMillan, Peacemakers: The Paris Conference of 1919 and Its Attempt to End War (London: John Murray, 2001), 14; Fleming, The Illusion of Victory, 321.
37. Crosby, America’s Forgotten Pandemic, 172.
38. Honigsbaum, Living with Enza, 133.
39. Ibid.; Crosby, America’s Forgotten Pandemic, 181; Iezzoni, Influenza 1918, 188.
40. Pettit and Bailie, A Cruel Wind, 161; Dallas, 1918, 424.
41. Thomas A. Bailey, Wilson and the Peacemakers, 2 vols. in one (New York: Macmillan, 1947), 1:221.
42. Arthur Walworth, Woodrow Wilson, 2 vols. in one (New York: Longmans, Green, 1958), 2:297n13; Honigsbaum, Living with Enza, 138; Crosby, America’s Forgotten Pandemic, 191, 192.
43. MacMillan, Peacemakers, 489.
44. Iezzoni, Influenza 1918, 182.
45. Barry, The Great Influenza, 370–371.
46. Jeffery K. Taubenberger et al., “Reconstruction of the 1918 Influenza Virus: Unexpected Rewards from the Past,” mBio, 3, no. 5 (September 11, 2012), e0020–212, mbio.asm.org/content/3/5/e00201-12.full.pdf.
47. Barry, The Great Influenza, 392; Collier, The Plague of the Spanish Lady, 178–179; Pettit and Bailie, A Cruel Wind, 29–30; Honigsbaum, Living with Enza, 142–143.
VI: A DETECTIVE STORY
1. Crosby, America’s Forgotten Pandemic, 314.
2. Vaughan, A Doctor’s Memories, 432; Flexner and Flexner, William Henry Welch, 376–377.
3. Hoehling, The Great Epidemic, 194.
4. John M. Eyler, “The State of Science, Microbiology, and Vaccines Circa 1918,” Public Health Reports, vol. 125, Supplement 3 (2010): “Influenza Pandemic in the United States,” 27–36, www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC286332.
5. Collier, The Plague of the Spanish Lady, 141, 142.
6. Eyler, “The State of Science, Microbiology, and Vaccines Circa 1918.”
7. Crosby, America’s Forgotten Pandemic, 288, 289; Barbara C. Canavan, “Collaboration Across the Pond: Influenza Virus Research, Interwar United States and Britain,” Rockefeller Archive Center Research Reports, December 31, 2014, 3–4, www.rockarch.org/publications/resrep/canavan.pdf.
8. Malcolm Gladwell, “The Dead Zone,” The New Yorker, September 29, 1997, 52, gladwell.com/the-dead-zone.
9. Davies, Catching Cold, 257.
10. Ibid., 255.
11. Ibid., 229.
12. “1918 Spanish Flu Epidemic,” Alaska Web, alaskaweb.org/disease/1918flu.htm.
13. Davies, Catching Cold, 114; “1918 Spanish Flu Epidemic.”
14. Davies, Catching Cold, 226, 235–236.
15. Ibid., 236.
16. Ibid., 253–254.
17. “1918 Spanish Flu Epidemic”; David Brown, “Resurrecting 1918 Flu Virus Took Many Turns,” Washington Post, October 10, 2005, www.washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/content/article/2005/10/09/AR2005100900932_pf.html.
18. Jeffery K. Taubenberger, “Jeffery Taubenberger—Full Transcript,” Conversations with Pathologists, interview, November 27, 2007, www.pathsoc.org/conversations/index.php?view=article&catid=65%3Ajeffery-taubenberger&id=92%3Ajeffery-taubenberger-full-transcript&option=com_content&Itemid=122.
19. Elizabeth Fernandez, “The Virus Detective: Dr. John Hultin Has Found Evidence of the 1918 Flu Epidemic That Has Eluded Experts for Decades,” San Francisco Chronicle, February 17, 2002, www.sfgate.com/ma
gazine/article/The-Virus-detective-Dr-John-Hultin-has-found-2872017.php.
20. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, “We Heard the Bells: The Influenza of 1918,” www.flu.gov/pandemic/history/weheardthebells/script_120709.html.
21. Ibid.
22. Fernandez, “The Virus Detective”; Brown, “Resurrecting 1918 Flu Virus Took Many Turns.”
23. Kolata, Flu, 264–265; Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, “We Heard the Bells.”
24. Taubenberger, “Jeffery Taubenberger—Full Transcript.”
25. Michael Specter, “Nature’s Bioterrorist,” The New Yorker, February 28, 2005, www.newyorker.com/magazine/2005/02/28/natures-bioterrorist-2.
26. Quinn, Flu, 176–177, 183; Davies, Catching Cold, 27–28; Pettit and Bailie, A Cruel Wind, 238–239; Jeffery K. Taubenberger and David M. Morens, “1918 Influenza: The Mother of All Pandemics,” Emerging Infectious Diseases, 12, no. 1 (January 2006), www.cdc.gov/eid/article/12/1/05-0979_article.
27. Andrew Nikiforuk, Pandemonium: Bird Flu, Mad Cow Disease and Other Biological Plagues of the 21st Century (Toronto: Viking Canada, 2006), 19.
28. Ibid., 6, 23.
29. Ibid., 1.
30. Ibid., 2–3, 23.
31. Specter, “Nature’s Bioterrorist.”
32. Laurie Garrett, “The Bioterrorist Next Door,” Foreign Policy, December 15, 2011, foreignpolicy.com/2011/12/15/the-bioterrorist-next-door.
33. Nikiforuk, Pandemonium, 15; Specter, “Nature’s Bioterrorist.”
34. “Worst U.S. Bird Flu Outbreak in History Expands to Michigan,” Reuters, June 8, 2015, www.reuters.com/article/us-health-birdflu-michigan-idUSKBN0OO29S20150608.
35. Tomes, “ ‘Destroyer and Teacher,’ ” 60; Tomes, “The Making of a Germ Panic, Then and Now,” 191–198.
36. Specter, “Nature’s Bioterrorist.”
37. “CONPLAN 3551-09, March 22, 2009,” Government Attic, governmentattic.org.
38. Osterholm, “Preparing for the Next Pandemic,” 31–33.
39. Michael Specter, “The Deadliest Virus,” The New Yorker, March 12, 2012, www.newyorker.com/magazine/2012/03/12/the-deadliest-virus.
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