For the history of The Tempest in connection with the New World, see Richard Sill [Charles Dirrill], Remarks on Shakespeare’s Tempest (Cambridge: Benjamin Flowers, 1797); Edmond Malone, An Account of the Incidents, from Which the Title and Part of the Story of Shakespeare’s Tempest Were Derived (London: C. and R. Baldwin, 1808); Charles Frey, “The Tempest and the New World,” Shakespeare Quarterly 30 (Winter 1979), pp. 29–41; Sidney Lee, “The Call of the West: America and Elizabethan England” in Scribner’s Magazine 42 (1907), pp. 313–30, rpt. in Sidney Lee, Elizabethan and Other Essays, ed. Frederick S. Boas (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1929); and Frank M. Bristol, Shakespeare and America. For a groundbreaking postcolonial American reading of the play, see Leslie Fiedler, The Stranger in Shakespeare (New York: Stein and Day, 1972).
The literature on immigration is considerable. For primary materials, I have found the Publications of the Immigration Restriction League (including numbers 1 and 15) extremely useful (facsimiles are viewable through the Harvard University Library Open Collections Program). For more on the League, see Lillian C. Pollan, “The Immigration Restriction League: Its Impact on National Immigration Policy” (MA thesis, Columbia University, 1964). For Fiske, see Letters of John Fiske, ed. Ethel F. Fisk (New York: Macmillan, 1940), pp. 666–70. The studies of immigration I have drawn on most heavily are: Royal Dixon, Americanization (New York: Macmillan, 1916); Prescott F. Hall, “Present-Day Immigration with Special Reference to the Japanese,” Annals of the American Academy of Political and Social Science 93 (January 1921), pp. 190–93; Gino Speranza, Race or Nation: A Conflict of Divided Loyalties (Indianapolis, IN: Bobbs-Merrill, 1925); Madison Grant and Chas. Stewart Davison, eds., The Alien in Our Midst, or ‘Selling Our Birthright for a Mess of Pottage’ (New Haven, CT: Galton Publishing Co., 1930); Barbara Miller Solomon, “The Intellectual Background of the Immigration Restriction Movement in New England,” New England Quarterly 25 (March 1952), pp. 47–59, as well as her Ancestors and Immigrants: A Changing New England Tradition (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1956); Samuel Lubell, The Future of American Politics, 2nd ed. (Garden City, NY: Doubleday, 1956); John Higham’s seminal Strangers in the Land: Patterns of American Nativism, 1860–1925 (New Brunswick, NJ: Rutgers University Press, 1955); Robert A. Divine, American Immigration Policy, 1924–1952 (New York: Da Capo Press, 1972); Edward P. Hutchinson, Legislative History of American Immigration Policy (Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, 1981); Mae M. Ngai, “The Architecture of Race in American Immigration Law: A Reexamination of the Immigration Act of 1924,” Journal of American History 86 (1999), pp. 67–92; Desmond King, Making Americans: Immigration, Race, and the Origins of the Diverse Democracy (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 2000); Cheryl Shanks, Immigration and the Politics of American Sovereignty, 1890–1990 (Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press, 2001); Ericka Lee, At America’s Gates: Chinese Immigration During the Exclusion Era, 1882–1943 (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 2003); Roger Daniels, Guarding the Golden Door: American Immigration Policy and Immigrants Since 1882 (New York: Hill and Wang, 2004); Bill Ong Hing, Defining America Through Immigration Policy (Philadelphia: Temple University Press, 2004); Brian Gratton, “Race or Politics?: Henry Cabot Lodge and the Origins of the Immigration Restriction Movement in the United States,” Journal of Policy History 30 (2018), pp. 128–57; Vincent Cannato, “Comments on Brian Gratton’s ‘Race and Politics,’” Journal of Policy History 30 (2018), pp. 161–64; and Joel Perlmann’s outstanding America Classifies the Immigrants: From Ellis Island to the 2020 Census (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 2018), who deals at length with Lodge. See too Neil Swidey, “Trump’s Anti-Immigration Playbook Was Written 100 Years Ago. In Boston,” Boston Globe, February 9, 2017. See as well Shakespeare and Immigration, eds. Ruben Espinosa and David Ruiter (Burlington, VT: Ashgate, 2014). See too Daniel Okrent’s excellent The Guarded Gate: Bigotry, Eugenics, and the Law That Kept Two Generations of Jews, Italians, and Other European Immigrants Out of America (New York: Charles Scribner’s Sons, 2019), which came out too late for me to draw on in my research.
For discussions of the literacy test in particular, see Henry Pratt Fairchild, “The Literacy Test and Its Making,” Quarterly Journal of Economics 31 (May 1917), pp. 447–60; and Nancy C. Carnevale, “Language, Race, and the New Immigrants: The Example of Southern Italians,” in Immigration Research for a New Century: Multidisciplinary Perspectives, eds. Nancy Foner, Rubén G. Rumbaut, and Steven J. Gold (New York: Russell Sage Foundation, 2000). For the language of the 1917 bill, see An Act to Regulate the Immigration of Aliens to, and the Residence of Aliens in, the United States, H.R. 10384; Pub.L. 301; 39 Stat. 874. And for President Woodrow Wilson’s veto message of January 28, 1915, see Gerhard Peters and John T. Woolley, The American Presidency Project (https://www.presidency.ucsb.edu/documents/veto-message-0).
For Anglo-Saxonism in the United States, see A. E. Campbell, Great Britain and the United States: 1895–1903 (London: Longmans, 1960); Reginald Horsman, Race and Manifest Destiny; Stuart Anderson, Race and Rapprochement: Anglo-Saxonism and Anglo-American Relations, 1894–1904 (Rutherford, NJ: Fairleigh Dickinson University Press, 1981); Allen J. Frantzen and John D. Niles, eds., Anglo-Saxonism and the Construction of Social Identity (Gainsville: University Press of Florida, 1997); and David T. Gleeson, ed., English Ethnicity and Culture in North America (Columbus: The University of South Carolina Press, 2017). For the roots of this theory, see Richard Verstegen, Restitution of Decayed Intelligence (London, 1605).
For Henry Cabot Lodge, see John A. Garraty, Henry Cabot Lodge, a Biography (New York: Knopf, 1953), which includes the photograph of Lodge dressed as Lady Macbeth; and Karl Schriftgiesser, The Gentleman from Massachusetts: Henry Cabot Lodge (Boston: Little, Brown, 1944). For Lodge’s interest in Shakespeare, see as well his eulogy “Address by William Lawrence Before the Joint Session of the General Court in Memory of Henry Cabot Lodge, April 1, 1925,” The Commonwealth of Massachusetts, Senate No. 431, p. 39; as well as Lodge’s own Early Memories (New York: Charles Scribner’s Sons, 1913). For Lodge’s letters on Shakespeare to Matthews, see the Brander Matthews Papers, 1877–1962, Columbia University, Special Collections, box numbers 13 and 14. For Lodge’s writings in 1891: Lodge, “Restriction of Immigration,” North American Review 152 (January 1891), pp. 27–36, which Lodge had read into the Congressional Record; Lodge, “Distribution of Ability in the United States,” Century Magazine 20 (September 1891), pp. 687–94; and Lodge, “Lynch Law and Unrestricted Immigration,” North American Review 152 (May 1891), pp. 602–12. See too his early and anonymous “Limited Sovereignty in the United States, Atlantic Monthly 53 (February 1879), pp. 185–87; Henry Cabot Lodge, Speeches by Henry Cabot Lodge (Boston: Houghton Mifflin, 1892); and Henry Cabot Lodge, ed., Selections from the Correspondence of Theodore Roosevelt and Henry Cabot Lodge, 1884–1918, 2 vols. (New York: Charles Scribner’s Sons, 1924), vol. 1, pp. 216–18. For Lodge on the American setting of The Tempest, see his introduction to Edward Everett Hale, Prospero’s Island, Discussions of the Drama III (New York: Dramatic Museum of Columbia University, 1919).
For Edward Alsworth Ross, see his “Racial Consequences of Immigration,” Century Illustrated Monthly Magazine 87 (1914), pp. 615–22, rpt. in his The Old World in the New: The Significance of Past and Present Immigration (New York: The Century Co., 1914). See too Ross’s Social Control: A Survey of the Foundations of Order (New York: Macmillan, 1901), p. 356, where he writes of Caliban: “Prospero busies himself with the teaching of Caliban. . . . The proselyting, missionary spirit is awakened and inspires the minority to leaven the entire lump with their new idea.” And for Dr. Taylor’s allusion to Caliban, see the Los Angeles Times, December 3, 1915.
For Charles Mills Gayley, see his Shakespeare and the Founders of Liberty in America (New York: Macmillan, 1917). Gayley’s poem “Heart of the Race” was republished in Israel Gollancz, ed., A Book of Homage to Shakespeare (Oxford: Oxford University Press,
1916), pp. 34–41. For my account of Gayley, I am deeply indebted to Coppélia Kahn’s “Poet of America: Charles Mills Gayley’s Anglo-Saxon Shakespeare,” Power, Citizenship, and Performance, eds. Coppélia Kahn, Heather S. Nathans, and Mimi Godfrey (Newark: University of Delaware Press, 2011), pp. 201–15. See too Benjamin P. Kurtz, Charles Mills Gayley: The Glory of a Lighted Mind (Oakland, CA: University of California Press, 1943). For a critique of Gayley’s book, see Elmer Edgar Stoll, “Certain Fallacies in the Literary Scholarship of the Day,” Studies in Philology 24 (1927), pp. 485–508. For more on Shakespeare and America, see Joseph Watson, “Shakespeare in America,” New York Herald, February 26, 1877, p. 6; Kim Sturgess, Shakespeare and the American Nation (Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press, 2004); and Andrew Carlson and Charlotte M. Canning, “Shakespeare, Once and Future American,” American Theatre, August 3, 2016, https://www.americantheatre.org/2016/08/03/shakespeare-once-and-future-american/.
For the text of Caliban, see Percy MacKaye, Caliban by the Yellow Sands (Garden City, NY: Doubleday, Page, 1916). For the New York program, see The New York City Shakespeare Tercentenary Committee Presents the Community Masque of the Art of the Theatre: Caliban by the Yellow Sands, by Percy MacKaye, Produced at the Stadium of the College of the City of New York on the Evenings of May 23, 24, 25, 26, and 27, 1916. And for responses to it, in addition to Cartelli and Kahn, see Michael Peter Mehler’s outstanding dissertation, Percy MacKaye: Spatial Formations of a National Character (Pittsburgh: University of Pittsburgh Press, 2010). Monika Smialkowska has written extensively and illuminatingly on MacKaye’s masque in the context of 1916. See her “‘A Democratic Art at a Democratic Price’: American Celebrations of the Shakespeare Tercentenary, 1916,” Transatlantica (2010); “Shakespeare and ‘Native Americans’: Forging Identities Through the 1916 Shakespeare Tercentenary,” Critical Survey 22 (2010), pp. 76–90; “Conscripting Caliban: Shakespeare, America, and the Great War,” Shakespeare 7 (2011), pp. 192–207; “An Englishman in New York?: Celebrating Shakespeare in America, 1916,” in Locating the English Diaspora, 1500–2010, eds. Tanja Bueltmann, David T. Gleeson, and Donald M. MacRaild (Liverpool: Liverpool University Press, 2012), pp. 205–21; and “Patchwork Shakespeare: Community Events at the American Shakespeare Tercentenary (1916),” in OuterSpeares: Shakespeare, Intermedia, and the Limits of Adaptation, ed. Daniel Fischlin (Toronto: University of Toronto Press, 2014), pp. 321–46. See too John Collier, “Caliban of the Yellow Sands: The Shakespeare Pageant and Masque Reviewed Against a Background of American Pageantry,” Survey 36 (July 1, 1916), pp. 343–50; David Glassberg, “Restoring a ‘Forgotten Childhood’: American Play and the Progressive Era’s Elizabethan Past,” American Quarterly 32 (1980), pp. 351–68; Vilma Raskin Potter, “Percy MacKaye’s Caliban for a Democracy,” Journal of American Culture 19 (Winter 1996), pp. 71–79; and Mel Gordon, “Percy MacKaye’s Masque of Caliban,” Tulane Drama Review 20 (1976), pp. 93–107. For biographical background, see Arvia MacKaye Ege, The Power of the Impossible: The Life Story of Percy and Marion MacKaye (Falmouth, ME: Kennebec River Press, 1992), and Percy MacKaye: A Sketch of His Life with Bibliography of His Works, rpt. from the Twenty-fifth Anniversary Report of the Class of 1897 (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1922). For MacKaye’s related writings, see his A Substitute for War (New York: Macmillan, 1915); The Immigrants: A Lyric Drama (New York: Huebsch, 1915); Saint Louis: A Civic Masque (Garden City, NY: Doubleday, Page, 1914) and The New Citizenship (New York: Macmillan, 1915); and “How I Came to Write ‘Caliban,’” Caliban News, July 12, 1917. His interview with Joyce Kilmer ran in the New York Times on May 14, 1916. For Otto H. Kahn’s remarks, see “Art and the People,” Art World 1 (March 1917), pp. 404–7. And for Cecil Sharp’s observation, see Maud Karpeles, Cecil Sharp: His Life and Work (London: Routledge and Kegan Paul, 1967), p. 133. For responses to Caliban, see John Collier, “Caliban of the Yellow Sands: The Shakespeare Pageant and Masque Reviewed Against a Background of American Pageantry,” Survey 36 (July 1, 1916), pp. 343–50; and Jane P. Franck, “Caliban at Lewisohn Stadium, 1916,” Shakespeare Encomium, ed. Anne Paolucci, The City College Papers I (New York: The City College, 1964), pp. 154–68. Florence Ripley Mastin’s poem “Caliban at the Stadium” first appeared in the New York Times on May 31, 1916, and was reprinted in her collection, Green Leaves (New York: James T. White and Co., 1918). For the controversy surrounding the playing of the national anthem in 1916, see the New York Times, July 25, 2016, and September 3, 1916. For the African American production of Othello in 1916, see “Negroes Give Othello,” New York Times, April 25, 1916, as well as “Theatrical Jottings,” New York Age, April 27, 1916. And for Shakespeare in Yiddish in America, see Joel Berkowitz, Shakespeare on the American Yiddish Stage (Iowa City: University of Iowa Press, 2002).
For the life of Joseph Quincy Adams, see the tributes to him by Stanley King and Lane Cooper in Joseph Quincy Adams: Memorial Studies, eds. James G. McManaway, Giles E. Dawson, and Edwin E. Willoughby (Washington, DC: Folger Shakespeare Library, 1948), as well as George L. Sioussat, Joseph Quincy Adams (1881–1946), pp. 233–37, rpt. from the Year Book of the American Philosophy Society (1947), pp. 233–37. For his writings, see Bibliography of Joseph Quincy Adams, 1904–1943 (Washington, DC: privately printed, 1943); Joseph Quincy Adams, “A Shakespeare Memorial for America,” Shakespeare Association Bulletin 5 (1930), pp. 169–73; Joseph Q. Adams, “A Norman Origin for Shakespeare,” Sewanee Review 29 (October 1921), pp. 386–91; and for Adams’s unpublished talk on “Shakespeare and Virginia,” see the bound typescript dated April 12, 1943, in the Folger Shakespeare Library, Washington, DC, MS.Add.37. Adams’s inaugural talk was published in the Spinning Wheel, 12:9–10 (June–July 1932), pp. 229–32, and is reprinted in my anthology, Shakespeare in America. For a contemporary report of his talk, see James Waldo Fawcett, “Folger Library, Memorial to Shakespeare, Dedicated,” Washington Post, April 24, 1932.
CHAPTER 6: 1948
I’m indebted to Anne Melissa Potter, a doctoral student at Columbia University, whose master’s essay on Kiss Me, Kate—part of which appeared as “The Taming of ‘Kiss Me, Kate,’” American Theatre (January 2019)—galvanized my interest in this story, and whose archival discovery of an early draft in which Katherine cross-dresses is a major contribution to our understanding of the making of the musical.
For information about early drafts of Kiss Me, Kate as well as the correspondence of those who created it, I have relied heavily on the Samuel and Bella Spewack Papers in the Rare Book and Manuscript Library of Columbia University Libraries. For biographical and autobiographical information that I cite, see box 100 and box 37; for letters that I quote from, see box E, box 1, and box 21; for early drafts, see the successive and mostly undated versions in box 26 and box 27. For an audio version of the 1970 BBC television program The Making of “Kiss Me, Kate,” in which Bella Spewack and Arnold Saint Subber appear, see box 136. I have also made use of “Patricia Morison, the Original Kate, Recalls the Broadway Production,” an interview with Miles Kreuger, as well as Kreuger’s liner notes for a CD of Kiss Me, Kate (London Sinfonietta and Ambrosian Chorus, EMI, 1990). Unfortunately, the Spewack archive is incomplete, for Kreuger took vital materials from Bella Spewack, which were never returned and are presumably lost; see Jess Bravin, “Musical Archivist Hits Sour Note as Lawsuit Claims He Stole Papers,” Wall Street Journal, June 3, 1998. I have also made use of a video recording of the raw footage of Michael Kantor’s 2002 interview with Patricia Morison, in the New York Public Library for the Performing Arts Research Collection, where I also consulted the annotated Lunt and Fontanne promptbook of their 1935 production of The Taming of the Shrew.
For the published text of Kiss Me, Kate, see Kiss Me, Kate: A Musical Play, book by Samuel and Bella Spewack, lyrics by Cole Porter (New York: Knopf, 1953); for a vocal score, see Kiss Me, Kate, music and lyrics by Cole Porter, book by Samuel and Bella Spewack, eds. David Charles Abell and Seann Alderking, Critical Edition (The Cole Porter Musi
cal and Literary Property Trusts, Chappell and Co., and Artlomin, Ltd., 2014).
For a performance history of The Taming of the Shrew, see The Taming of the Shrew, ed. Elizabeth Schafer, Shakespeare in Production (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2002); The Taming of the Shrew, ed. Barbara Hodgdon, The Arden Shakespeare (London: Methuen Drama, 2010); and William Winter, Shakespeare on the Stage, 2nd series, pp. 524–38. For how unruly Elizabethan women were punished, see Linda Boose, “Scolding Brides and Bridling Scolds: Taming the Woman’s Unruly Member,” Shakespeare Quarterly 42 (Summer 1991), pp. 179–213.
For Lunt and Fontanne’s production of The Taming of the Shrew, see George Freedley, The Lunts (New York: Macmillan, 1958); Maurice Zolotow, Stagestruck: The Romance of Alfred Lunt and Lynn Fontanne (New York: Harcourt, Brace and World, 1964); Jared Brown, The Fabulous Lunts: A Biography of Alfred Lunt and Lynn Fontanne (New York: Athenaeum, 1986); Margot Peters, Design for Living: Alfred Lunt and Lynn Fontanne (New York: Knopf, 2003); Helen Ormabee, New York Herald Tribune, September 29, 1935; Boston Globe, January 22, 1936; Richard Watts Jr., New York Herald Tribune, February 6, 1940; John D. Beaufort, Christian Science Monitor, February 6, 1940; and Burns Mantle, New York Daily News, February 6, 1940. See too Sam Abel, “Staging Heterosexuality: Alfred Lunt and Lynn Fontanne’s Design for Living,” Robert A. Schanke and Kim Marra, eds., Passing Performances: Queer Readings of Leading Players in American Theater History (Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press, 1998), pp. 175–96.
For scholarship on women, work, and domestic violence in 1940s America, I have drawn on: Maureen Honey, Creating Rosie the Riveter: Class, Gender and Propaganda During World War II (Amherst: University of Massachusetts Press, 1984); Kristin Celello, Making Marriage Work: A History of Marriage and Divorce in the Twentieth-Century United States (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 2009); Susan M. Hartmann, The Home Front and Beyond: American Women in the 1940s (Boston: Twayne, 1982); Susan M. Hartmann, “Prescriptions for Penelope: Literature on Women’s Obligations to Returning World War II Veterans,” Women’s Studies 5 (1978), pp. 223–39; Elaine Tyler May, Great Expectations: Marriage and Divorce in Post-Victorian America (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1980); Elaine Tyler May, Homeward Bound: American Families in the Cold War Era (New York: Basic Books, 1988); William Chafe, The American Woman: Her Changing Social, Economic, and Political Roles, 1920–1970 (New York: Oxford University Press, 1972), revised as The Paradox of Change: American Women in the 20th Century (New York: Oxford University Press, 1991); D’Ann Campbell, Women at War with America: Private Lives in a Patriotic Era (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1984); Steven Mintz and Susan Kellogg, Domestic Revolutions: A Social History of American Family Life (New York: Free Press, 1988); Geoffrey Perrett, A Dream of Greatness: The American People, 1945–1963 (New York: Coward, McCann and Geoghegan, 1979); Lori Rotskoff, Love on the Rocks: Men, Women, and Alcohol in Post-World War II America (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 2002); Sheryl J. Grana, Women and (In)justice: The Criminal and Civil Effects of the Common Law on Women’s Lives (Boston: Allyn and Bacon, 2002); America’s Working Women, eds. Rosalyn Baxandall, Linda Gordon, and Susan Reverby (New York: Vintage Books, 1976); Nancy Lemon, Domestic Violence Law: A Comprehensive Overview of Cases and Sources (San Francisco: Austin and Winfield, 1996); David Peterson del Mar, What Trouble I Have Seen: A History of Violence Against Wives (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1996); R. Emerson Dobash and Russell P. Dobash, Women, Violence, and Social Change (New York: Routledge, 1992); Karen Anderson, Wartime Women: Sex Roles, Family Relations, and the Status of Women During World War II (Westport, CT: Greenwood Press, 1981); and George Hutchinson, Facing the Abyss: American Literature and Culture in the 1940s (New York: Columbia University Press, 2018). For statistics on women workers, see Women’s Bureau, Women as Workers, a Statistical Guide (Washington, DC: Government Printing Office, 1953), pp. 15–17, cited in Campbell, Women at War.
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