by Ari Kelman
50. “Because of the connections …,” “liaison,” “disappointed,” and “unsure of where …” from Cathy Spude interview, June 21, 2003. “Throw his hat in …” from David Halaas interview, September 26, 2003.
51. Daniel Chapman, legislative council staffer, to Dottie Wham, senator, Colorado State Senate, and chair, Capitol Development Committee, May 1, 1998, in File 6-10, “Civil War Monument, 2002,” in Colorado Historical Society, Denver, CO; Colorado Legislative Council, Memorials and Art in and around the Colorado State Capitol (Denver: Colorado Legislative Council, 1992), 5, found in File 6-10; “Soldier Monument to Be Unveiled at Capitol,” Denver Daily News, July 24, 1909, 1; David Halaas interview, September 26, 2003; Cathy Spude interview, June 21, 2003; “Shaft for Hero Dead of State,” Rocky Mountain News, November 10, 1905.
52. Blight, Race and Reunion, 1–5; Eric Hobsbawm, “Inventing Traditions,” in Eric Hobsbawm and Terence Ranger, eds., The Invention of Tradition (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1992), 1–14; Michael Kammen, Mystic Chords of Memory: Transformations of Tradition in American Society (New York: Vintage, 1993), 101–139; Gaines M. Foster, Ghosts of the Confederacy: Defeat, the Lost Cause and the Emergence of the New South, 1865–1913 (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1988), 4–8, 23–67.
53. Blight, Race and Reunion, 2–5; and Kammen, Mystic Chords of Memory, 117–132.
54. Quotes from “Shaft to Civil War Martyrs of State Unveiled with Pomp,” Denver Daily News, July 25, 1909. See also “Hosts Gather to Show Honor to Fallen Heroes,” Denver Post, July 24, 1909; Colorado Legislative Council, Memorials and Art in and around the Colorado State Capitol, 5; “Soldier Monument to Be Unveiled at Capitol,” Denver Daily News, July 24, 1909.
55. Quotes from Colorado Senate Joint Resolution 98-034, found in File 6-10, “Civil War Monument, 2002”; emphasis added. See also Chapman to Wham, May 1, 1998, in File 6-10; Betty Chronic, vice chair, Capitol Building Advisory Committee, to Dottie Wham, July 31, 1998, in File 6-10; “History of SJR034,” in File 6-10; Colorado Legislative Council, Memorials and Art in and around the Colorado State Capitol, 5; Wham to Members, Colorado State Senate, May 5, 1998, in File 6-10.
56. Steve Brady interview, August 29, 2004; Laird Cometsevah interview, May 12, 2003; David Halaas interview, September 26, 2003; Modupe Lobode interview, June 3, 2005.
57. Quotes from David F. Halaas, chief historian, Colorado Historical Society, to Georgi Contiguglia, president, Colorado Historical Society, May 29, 1998, in File 6-10, “Civil War Monument, 2002.” See also Steve Brady interview, August 29, 2004; Laird Cometsevah interview, May 12, 2003; David Halaas interview, September 26, 2003; Modupe Lobode interview, June 3, 2005.
58. “Assault on Colorado’s …” and “erasing …” from Glenn Morris, member, Leadership Council of the American Indian Movement of Colorado, interview by author, November 29, 2003, Denver, CO, notes in author’s possession. “Keep the words …” and “if each generation …” from Tom Noel, “Don’t Erase ‘Sand Creek’: Leave Record Intact for Future Generations,” Denver Post, July 5, 1998, G-1. See also Steve Brady, president, Northern Cheyenne Sand Creek Descendants, and Laird Cometsevah, president, Southern Cheyenne Sand Creek Descendants, to Senate and House of Representatives of the State of Colorado, July 25, 1998, in File 6-10, “Civil War Monument, 2002”; David Halaas interview, September 26, 2003; Cathy Spude interview, June 21, 2003.
59. Quotes from Fletcher, “The Killing Field at Sand Creek,” 16; and Harrison Fletcher, “History in the Making: The Battle over the Sand Creek Massacre Just Won’t End,” Westword 21 (July 30–August 5, 1998): 6.
60. “Involved in …,” “believed the Cheyennes …,” and “enlisted Civil War …” from David F. Halaas to Georgi Contiguglia, July 28, 1998, in File 6-10, “Civil War Monument, 2002.” “Respectfully request[ing] …” and “signage be placed …” from Brady and Cometsevah to Senate and House of Representatives of the State of Colorado, July 25, 1998. See also Georgianna Contiguglia to Robert Martinez, senator, Colorado State Senate, January 20, 1999, in File 6-10; “Staff Summary of Capital Development Committee, Agenda Item 3, September 15, 1998,” in File 6-10; Senate Joint Resolution 99-017, in File 6-10; Dottie Wham to Tony Grampsas, representative, Colorado House of Representatives, and chair, Capitol Building Advisory Committee, September 17, 1998, in File 6-10; “Agenda, State Capitol Building Advisory Committee, House Committee Room 0109, State Capitol, July 31, 1998,” in File 6-10; Chronic to Wham, July 31, 1998, in File 6-10; Laird Cometsevah interview, May 12, 2003; David Halaas interview, September 26, 2003; “Summary of Meeting: State Capitol Building Advisory Committee, House Committee Room 0109, State Capitol Building, July 31, 1998,” 1–2, in File 6-10.
61. “Spent the …” from Steve Brady interview, August 29, 2004. “Oral histories …” and “not void …” from Cathy Spude to Jerry Rogers, Memorandum, re. meeting of July 25, 1998, at CHS with tribes, August 6, 1998, in FSCMNHS, now at NPS-WACC. “It is not …” from Cathy Spude’s personal notes of the meeting (undated), in FSCMNHS, now at NPS-WACC. See also David Halaas interview, September 26, 2003.
62. “Ground-disturbing” from Cathy Spude interview, June 21, 2003. See also David Halaas interview, September 26, 2003; Cathy Spude’s personal notes of the meeting (undated), in FSCMNHS, now at NPS-WACC; Spude to Rogers, July 25, 1998.
63. Quotes from Cathy Spude’s personal notes on her meeting with William Dawson, July 7, 1998, in FSCMNHS, now at NPS-WACC. See also Cathy Spude’s personal notes on her meeting with William Dawson, July 23, 1998, in FSCMNHS, now at NPS-WACC.
64. “Wanted to …” from Cathy Spude interview, June 21, 2003. “Verbatim copy” from Cathy Spude to Barbara Sutteer, e-mail, August 25, 1998, in FSCMNHS, now at NPS-WACC; and also William Dawson to Cathy Spude, e-mail, August 14, 1998, in FSCMNHS, now at NPS-WACC. “Breach of trust” from William Dawson to Cathy Spude, e-mail, August 14, 1998, in FSCMNHS, now at NPS-WACC. “Problems with …” from William Dawson to John Cook, e-mail, August 17, 1998, in FSCMNHS, now at NPS-WACC. “As a government …,” “A Park Service …,” and “If you want …” from William Dawson interview, June 18, 2003. See also William Dawson to Cathy Spude, e-mail, August 13, 1998, in FSCMNHS, now at NPS-WACC; and William Dawson to Cathy Spude, e-mail, August 17, 1998, in FSCMNHS, now at NPS-WACC; Cathy Spude to John Cook, Mike Snyder, Jerry Rogers, Ernest Ortega, Bob Powers, and Susan Garland, e-mail, August 24, 1998, in FSCMNHS, now at NPS-WACC.
65. “Treated as …” from Cathy Spude to Ernest Ortega, e-mail, September 30, 1998, in FSCMNHS, now at NPS-WACC. “Devastated,” “wasn’t going …,” and “I can’t …” from Cathy Spude interview, June 21, 2003. “I’ll be …” from William Dawson interview, June 18, 2003. See also John Cook to William Dawson, e-mail, September 21, 1998, in FSCMNHS, now at NPS-WACC; and Cathy Spude to Rick Frost, e-mail, April 10, 1999, in FSCMNHS, now at NPS-WACC.
66. “Bleed green,” used in a different context, from Alexa Roberts, interview by author, October 21, 2005, telephone, notes in author’s possession. See also Rick Frost, associate regional director for communications and external relations, Intermountain Region, National Park Service, interview by author, June 11, 2003, Denver, CO, tape recording, in author’s possession.
67. Jerome Greene, research historian, National Park Service, interview by author, May 27, 2003, Denver, CO, tape recording, in author’s possession; and Jerome A. Greene, Evidence and the Custer Enigma: A Reconstruction of Indian-Military History (Kansas City: Kansas City Posse of the Westerners, 1973), 7–46.
68. Quotes from Lysa Wegman-French, historian, Intermountain Region, National Park Service, interview by author, June 9, 2003, Denver, CO, tape recording, in author’s possession. See also Roberts, “Sand Creek: Tragedy and Symbol,” 1–583; and Christine Whitacre, historian, Intermountain Region, National Park Service, interview by author, May 27, 2003, Denver, CO, tape recording, in author’s possession.
69. Quotes from Barbara Sutteer interview, August 5, 2003. See also Alexa Rober
ts interview, April 29, 2003; Alexa Roberts, interview by author, March 25, 2004, telephone, notes in author’s possession; Bob Reece, “The Story of the Indian Memorial,” Friends of the Little Bighorn Battlefield, http://www.friendslittlebighorn.com/Indian%20Memorial.htm; “Indian Memorial at the Little Bighorn Battlefield National Monument,” http://www.nps.gov/archive/libi/indmem.htm.
70. Alexa Roberts interview, April 29, 2003; Alexa Roberts, “Trust Me, I Work for the Government: Confidentiality and Public Access to Sensitive Information,” American Indian Quarterly 25 (Winter 2001): 13–17.
71. Barbara Sutteer interview, August 5, 2003; Lysa Wegman-French interview, June 9, 2003; Steve Brady interview, August 29, 2004; Laird Cometsevah interview, May 12, 2003; David Halaas interview, September 26, 2003.
3. THE SMOKING GUN
1. Joyce Oldham Appleby, Lynn Avery Hunt, and Margaret C. Jacob, Telling the Truth about History (New York: W. W. Norton, 1995), 15–128, 160–240; Marc Bloch, The Historian’s Craft (New York: Vintage, 1964), 40–65; Edward Hallett Carr, What Is History (New York: Vintage, 1967), 3–35; Richard J. Evans, In Defense of History (New York: W. W. Norton, 2000), 13–109; David H. Fischer, Historians’ Fallacies: Toward a Logic of Historical Thought (New York: Harper Perrenial, 1970), 3–97; Martha C. Howell and Walter Prevenier, From Reliable Sources: An Introduction to the Historical Method (Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press, 2001), 17–42; George Iggers, Historiography in the Twentieth Century: From Scientific Objectivity to the Postmodern Challenge (Middletown, CT: Wesleyan University Press, 2005), 1–35, 41–50; Peter Novick, That Noble Dream: The “Objectivity Question” and the American Historical Profession (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1998), 1–58, 361–584.
2. Lysa Wegman-French, historian, Intermountain Region, National Park Service, interview by author, June 9, 2003, Denver, CO, tape recording, in author’s possession; Christine Whitacre, historian, Intermountain Region, National Park Service, interview by author, May 27, 2003, Denver, CO, tape recording, in author’s possession.
3. Jerome A. Greene and Douglas D. Scott, Finding Sand Creek: History, Archeology, and the 1864 Massacre Site (Norman: University of Oklahoma Press, 2004), 30–33; Jerome Greene, research historian, National Park Service, interview by author, May 27, 2003, Denver, CO, tape recording, in author’s possession; National Park Service, Intermountain Region, Sand Creek Massacre Project, vol. 1: Site Location Study (Denver: National Park Service, Intermountain Region, 2000), 34–36 (hereafter Site Location Study).
4. “Participant testimony” and “people who were there” from Jerome Greene interview, May 27, 2003. “The Park Service’s recognized expert …” from Lysa Wegman-French interview, June 9, 2003. See also Quartermaster General of the Army, U.S. Army Uniforms and Equipment, 1889: Specifications for Clothing, Camp and Garrison Equipage, and Clothing and Equipage Materials (Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press, 1986), ii–ix; Jerome A. Greene, Battles and Skirmishes of the Great Sioux War, 1876–1877: The Military View (Norman: University of Oklahoma Press, 1996), xv–xviii; Richard G. Hardorff, Lakota Recollections of the Custer Fight: New Sources of Indian-Military History (Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press, 1997), 1–8; Michael H. Frisch, A Shared Authority: Essays on the Craft and Meaning of Oral and Public History (Albany: State University of New York Press, 1990), 1–37, 147–158, 179–190; Alessandro Portelli, The Death of Luigi Trastulli and Other Stories: Form and Meaning in Oral History (Albany: State University of New York Press, 1990), 1–79; Donald A. Ritchie, Doing Oral History (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2003), 11–46; Ruth H. Finnegan, Oral Traditions and the Verbal Arts: A Guide to Research Practices (London: Routledge, 1992), 1–89, 214–233; Rebecca Sharpless, “The History of Oral History,” in Thomas L. Charlton, Lois E. Myers, and Rebecca Sharpless, eds., History of Oral History: Foundations and Methodology (Lanham, MD: Altamira Press, 2007), 10–14.
5. Quotes from National Park Service, Site Location Study, 35–36. See also pp. 34–40 and 53–70.
6. Lysa Wegman-French interview, June 9, 2003; Patricia Nelson Limerick, Legacy of Conquest: The Unbroken Past of the American West (New York: W. W. Norton, 1987), 20–27; Frederick Jackson Turner, The Frontier in American History (New York: Henry Holt, 1921), 1–38.
7. “Resurrected a 20-year-old campaign …” and “David Nichols” from Kristen Black, “Nichols Hall Report Says New Name Needed,” Colorado Daily, September 30, 1987, 1. “Open wound …” from Kristen Black, “Lt. Governor Joins Dorm Protest,” Colorado Daily, October 12, 1987, 1. See also Patricia Nelson Limerick, “What’s in a Name? Nichols Hall: A Report” (unpublished manuscript, September 14, 1987), 107.
8. “Ideal topic …” from Limerick, “What’s in a Name?,” 2.
9. Quotes from Limerick, “What’s in a Name?,” 5, 18, 3, and 2.
10. “To the white participants …” from Limerick, “What’s in a Name?,” 69. All other quotes from Robert M. Utley to Patricia Nelson Limerick, August 2, 1987, in Limerick, “What’s in a Name?,” appendix.
11. “The University [should] change the name …” from Limerick, “What’s in a Name?,” 107.
12. “Revisionism,” “biased,” and “The minority students were …” from Black, “Nichols Hall Report Says New Name Needed,” 1. “Denigrates people,” “let the dead bury …,” and “If we decide to pull down …” from Barry Bortnick, “Regent Says Nichols Report Biased,” Boulder Daily Camera, September 29, 1987, A-2.
13. “Trying to fight a war …” from Kristen Black, “Nichols’ Controversy Irks His Descendants,” Colorado Daily, October 12, 1987, 1. “A great day” from Steve Millard, “Nichols Hall Will Be Renamed,” Boulder Daily Camera, November 20, 1987, A-1. See also Linda Cornett, “Regents Approve Naming Dorm Cheyenne Arapaho Hall,” Boulder Daily Camera, April 21, 1989, A-1; Steve Millard, “Regents Postpone Dorm Name Decision,” Boulder Daily Camera, March 16, 1987, B-1; Renate Robey, “Indian-Fighter’s Name to Come Off Dorm at CU,” Denver Post, November 20, 1997, B-8.
14. Quote from National Park Service, Site Location Study, 34; emphasis added. See also Gary L. Roberts, “Sand Creek: Tragedy and Symbol” (unpublished PhD dissertation, University of Oklahoma, 1984), 552; Jerome A. Greene, Lakota and Cheyenne: Indian Views of the Great Sioux War (Norman: University of Oklahoma Press, 2000), xiii–xv; Lysa Wegman-French interview, June 9, 2003; Jerome Greene interview, May 27, 2003; Christine Whitacre interview, May 27, 2003.
15. “Folks had complied …” and “they weren’t fools” from Laird Cometsevah, chief, Southern Cheyenne Tribe, interview by author, May 12, 2003, Denver, CO, tape recording, in author’s possession. See also “Citizenship Act of 1924,” Colonial Williamsburg Foundation, http://research.history.org/pf/weThePeople/citizenshipAct.cfm.
16. Quote from Roberts, “Sand Creek: Tragedy and Symbol,” 676. See also Colorado Transcript, October 10, 1894; New York Times, October 14, 1894; Denver Republican, October 5, 1894; David Fridtjof Halaas and Andrew E. Masich, Halfbreed: The Remarkable True Story of George Bent, Caught between the Worlds of the Indian and the White Man (New York: Da Capo Press, 2004), 327–348; George E. Hyde, Life of George Bent: Written from His Letters, ed. Savoie Lottinville (Norman: University of Oklahoma Press, 1968), v–xvi; George Bird Grinnell, The Cheyenne Indians: History and Society, vol. 1 (Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press, 1972), 21, 158; George Bird Grinnell, The Cheyenne Indians: War, Ceremonies, and Religion, vol. 2 (Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press, 1972), 271–273; George Bird Grinnell, The Fighting Cheyennes (1915; reprint, Norman: University of Oklahoma Press, 1955), 103–201; Roberts, “Sand Creek: Tragedy and Symbol,” 676.
17. George Bent map, Folder 1, Bent-Hyde Collection, Western History Collections, University of Colorado Library, Boulder, CO (hereafter Bent-Hyde Collection); and George Bent map, Oklahoma Historical Society, Oklahoma City.
18. Quote from Greene and Scott, Finding Sand Creek, 35. See also Jerome Greene interview, May 27, 2003; National Park Service, Site Location Study, 43.
&nbs
p; 19. “Heard people …” and “it was actually Hyde …” from Lysa Wegman-French to Cathy Spude, e-mail, August 26, 1998, in uncataloged files of the Sand Creek Massacre National Historic Site (FSCMNHS), currently held by National Park Service, Western Archeological and Conservation Center (NPS-WACC), Tucson, AZ. All other quotes from Lysa Wegman-French interview, June 9, 2003. See also Greene and Scott, Finding Sand Creek, 43; Jerome Greene interview, May 27, 2003; National Park Service, Site Location Study, 43; Christine Whitacre interview, May 27, 2003.
20. “The base map …” from Wegman-French to Spude, e-mail, August 26, 1998. All other quotes from Lysa Wegman-French interview, June 9, 2003. See also Bent-Hyde maps, Folders 3 and 10, Bent-Hyde Collection; Greene and Scott, Finding Sand Creek, 43; Jerome Greene interview, May 27, 2003; National Park Service, Site Location Study, 22, 24, 43; Christine Whitacre interview, May 27, 2003.
21. “Something of an oddity” from Gary Roberts to Jerome Greene, e-mail, August 24, 1998, in FSCMNHS, now at NPS-WACC. All other quotes from Jerome Greene interview, May 27, 2003. Samuel W. Bonsall map, in National Archives, Great Lakes Region, Chicago. See also Greene and Scott, Finding Sand Creek, 41–51; David Halaas, director of publications, library, and archives, John Heinz History Center, interview by author, September 26, 2003, Pittsburgh, PA, tape recording, in author’s possession; National Park Service, Site Location Study, 41–53.
22. “Strip map …” from National Park Service, Site Location Study, 43. “Commanding officers …,” “whose object …,” and “every point …” from Revised United States Army Regulations, of 1861, With an Appendix containing the Changes and Laws Affecting Army Regulations and Articles of War to June 25, 1863 (Philadelphia: George W. Childs, 1864), 98–103. “Chivington’s Massacre” from Samuel W. Bonsall map, National Archives. See also Jerome Greene interview, May 27, 2003; Greene and Scott, Finding Sand Creek, 41–51; National Park Service, Site Location Study, 41–53.
