In addition, the following sources have provided useful information about specific aspects of Kraepelin’s work: G. E. Berrios and R. Hauser (1988) ‘The early development of Kraepelin’s ideas on classification: a conceptual history’, Psychological Medicine, 18: 813–21 (on Kraepelin’s scientific ideas); G. E. Berrios and R. Hauser (1995) ‘Kraepelin’, in G. E. Berrios and R. Porter (eds.), A History of Clinical Psychiatry. London: Athlone Press (on Kraepelin’s scientific ideas); E. J. Engstrom (1991) ‘Emil Kraepelin: psychiatry and public affairs in Wilhelmine Germany’, History of Psychiatry, 2: 111–32 (on Kraepelin’s attitudes towards alcohol, syphilis and nationalism); E. J. Engstrom (1995) ‘Kraepelin’, in Berrios and Porter (eds.), A History, op. cit. (on Kraepelin’s battles with bureaucracy while at Heidelberg); P. Hoff (1995) ‘Kraepelin’, in Berrios and Porter (eds.), A History, op. cit. (on Kraepelin’s scientific ideas); S. E. Jelliffe (1932) ‘Emil Kraepelin, the man and his work’, Archives of Neurology and Psychiatry, 27: 761–75 (an admiring account of Kraepelin’s character and achievements); M. Shepherd (1995) ‘Two faces of Emil Kraepelin’, British Journal of Psychiatry, 167: 174–83 (on Kraepelin’s nationalism).
8. My account of Kraepelin’s fall-out with Flechsig is based on Kraepelin’s memoirs, and also on the account of Flechsig’s life given in Z. Lothane (1992) In Defense of Schreber: Soul Murder and Psychiatry. Hillsdale, NJ: Analytic Press.
9. See Engstrom, ‘Kraepelin’, in Berrios and Porter (eds.), A History, op. cit.
10. See Engstrom, ‘Emil Kraepelin’, op. cit.
11. Jelliffe, ‘Emil Kraepelin, the man and his work’, op. cit.: 762.
12. Quoted in Shorter From Paralysis to Fatigue, op cit., p. 243.
13. F. Heynick (1993) Language and its Disturbances in Dreams: The Pioneering Work of Freud and Kraepelin Updated. London: Wiley.
14. See E. Kraepelin (1904/1974) ‘Comparative psychiatry’, reprinted in S. R. Hirsch and M. Shepherd (eds.), Themes and Variations in European Psychiatry. Bristol: Wright.
15. Engstrom, ‘Emil Kraepelin’, op. cit.
16. Kraepelin (1907) quoted in O. Reider (1974) ‘The origin of our confusion about schizophrenia’, Psychiatry, 37: 197–208. The italics are mine.
17. His thinking about this approach was influenced by Karl Ludwig Kahlbaum, a psychiatrist who owned a private hospital in the German town of Görlitz. Kahlbaum had written extensively on problems of psychiatric classification and had noted that ‘snapshot’ observations of patients’ symptoms could be misleading because the presentation of an illness could vary over time. According to Kahlbaum: ‘We do not see the forms of the various disease entities, but only the forms of their various stadia or better still the forms of various symptom complexes any one of which the illness can adopt during different periods of its course…’ (quoted in J. Hoenig (1995) ‘Schizophrenia’, in Berrios and Porter (eds.), A History, op. cit.).
18. The eighth edition of the Textbook, quoted in Hoenig, ‘Schizophrenia’, in Berrios and Porter (eds.), A History, op. cit.
19. See G. E. Berrios (1995) ‘Mood disorders’, in Berrios and Porter (eds.), A History, op. cit.
20. E. Kraepelin (1921) Manic-Depressive Insanity and Paranoia (trans. R. M. Barclay). Edinburgh: Livingstone. See also F. K. Goodwin and K. R. Jamison (1990) Manic-Depressive Illness. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
21. E. Kraepelin (1920/1992) ‘Clinical manifestations of mental illness’, History of Psychiatry, 3: 499–529. All the remaining quotations in this chapter are from this paper. In the third of these, I have substituted Kraepelin’s original term ‘dementia praecox’ for ‘schizophrenia’, a new name for the disorder introduced by Eugen Bleuler, and which Kraepelin used sometimes in his later publications (see next chapter).
22. Victor Parant (1905) quoted in G. E. Berrios and R. Hauser (1995) ‘Kraepelin’, in Berrios and Porter (eds.), A History, op. cit.
Chapter 2 After Kraepelin
1. O. Wilde (1891) Intentions. London: J. R. Osgood, McIlvaine.
2. My account of Eugen Bleuler’s life is based mainly on the following two sources: M. Bleuler and R. Bleuler (1986) ‘Books reconsidered: Dementia praecox oder die gruppe der schizophrenien by Eugen Bleuler’, British Journal of Psychiatry, 149: 661–4; H. F. Ellenberger (1970) The Discovery of the Unconscious: The History and Evolution of Dynamic Psychiatry. New York: Basic Books.
For my account of Bleuler’s rift with Freud I have relied on the following sources: F. G. Alexander and S. T. Selesnick (1966) The History of Psychiatry: An Evaluation of Psychiatric Thought from Prehistoric Times to the Present. New York: Harper & Row; E. Jones (1962) The Life and Work of Sigmund Freud (abridged edn). London: Hogarth Press.
My account of Bleuler’s concept of schizophrenia is mainly from his own work, Dementia Praecox or the Group of Schizophrenias (trans. E. Zinkin), New York: International Universities Press, from the same historical sources I have used in writing my account of Kraepelin’s work, and also from J. K. Wing (1995) ‘Concepts of schizophrenia’, in S. R. Hirsch and D. R. Weinberger (eds.), Schizophrenia. Oxford: Blackwell.
3. Ellenberger, The Discovery of the Unconscious, op. cit.
4. Bleuler and Bleuler, ‘Books reconsidered’, op. cit.
5. See C. G. Jung (1907/1960) The Psychology of Dementia Praecox, vol. 3, in H. Read, M. Fordham, G. Adler and W. McGuire (eds.), The Collected Works of C. G. Jung. London: Routledge.
6. Quoted in Alexander and Selesnick, The History of Psychiatry, op. cit.
7. Quoted in Alexander and Selesnick, The History of Psychiatry, op. cit.
8. Quoted in L. J. Chapman and J. P. Chapman (1973) Disordered Thought in Schizophrenia. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall.
9. Bleuler, Dementia Praecox, op. cit., p. 236.
10. Bleuler, Dementia Praecox, op. cit.
11. See F. K. Goodwin and K. R. Jamison (1990) Manic-Depressive Illness. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
12. My account of Jaspers’ life is based largely on his Philosophical Autobiography, in P. A. Schilpp (ed.) (1981) The Philosophy of Karl Jaspers. Illinois: Open Court Publishing Company.
13. Unless indicated otherwise, all the following quotations from Jaspers are from his Philosophical Autobiography.
14. See K. Kolle (1981) ‘Karl Jaspers as Psychopathologist’, in Schilpp (ed.), The Philosophy of Karl Jaspers, op. cit.
15. ibid.
16. In raising this distinction, Jaspers anticipated later arguments between philosophers about the relationship between everyday and scientific explanations of human behaviour. The term folk psychology, introduced by the Austrian-born philosopher Paul Feyerabend in 1963 (‘Materialism and the mind – body problem’, Review of Meta physics, 17: 49–65), refers to the ordinary system of explaining human behaviour in terms of causal mental states such as beliefs, desires and intentions. (Such states are sometimes called intentional states. This convention follows the work of the German philosopher Franz Brentano (Psychology from an Empirical Stand point. London: Routledge, 1874/1973), who argued that the hallmark of all mental states was the property he called ‘intentionality’, by which he meant the ‘aboutness’ that linked the mental state to the world. On this view it is impossible to have a mental state which is not about something.) According to self-styled eliminative materialists, for example the American philosophers Paul and Patricia Churchland (e.g. Paul M. Churchland, Matter and Consciousness. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press, 1984), folk psychology is a pre-scientific approach to explaining human behaviour, and must be replaced by accounts that emphasize specific brain mechanisms; after all, the Churchlands argue, examination of the brain reveals nothing corresponding to beliefs, desires and intentions. On this view, psychology must eventually give way to neuroscience. Jaspers’ position, however, is closer to that of another American philosopher, Dan Dennett (The Intentional Stance, Cambridge, MA: MIT Press, 1987), who argues that we can choose between taking an intentional stance (in which we explain behaviour in terms of the elements of folk psych
ology; for example, explaining my writing of this book in terms of my desire for fame, money and career enhancement) and the design stance (in which we explain behaviour interms of the biological machinery of the brain; for example, explaining my writing of this book in terms of the various neurobiological processes which sustain my memory of previous research, allow me to generate sentences, and control the movement of my fingers across my Macintosh keyboard). Dennett argues that both stances have distinct advantages and that, for most purposes, the intentional stance provides us with a powerful way of explaining and predicting the behaviour of our fellows (for example, from my belief that my editor at Penguin is a nice fellow I can predict that he will not be angry if this manuscript is many months overdue). Like Jaspers, Dennett notes that we tend to be thrown on to design stance explanations (‘there’s something wrong with the brain’) when intentional stance explanations fail us (that is, when we say that the behaviour we are observing is ‘mad’, ‘crazy’, ‘loco’ or, in Jaspers’ terminology, un understandable).
17. I have managed to find few English-language sources on Schneider’s career. The account here is based largely on the following papers by J. Hoenig: ‘Kurt Schneider and anglophone psychiatry’, Comprehensive Psychiatry, 23: 391–400, 1982; ‘The concept of schizophrenia: Kraepelin–Bleuler–Schneider’, British Journal of Psychiatry, 142: 547–56, 1983; ‘Schneider’s first rank symptoms and the tabulators’, Comprehensive Psychiatry, 25: 77–87, 1984.
18. Understandably, psychiatrists have not advertised this part of their history. However, much has been made of the association between Nazism and genetic research by critics of institutional psychiatry, for example radical psychiatrist Peter Breggin (Toxic Psychiatry. London: Fontana, 1993) and the scientology movement (see, for example, T. Roder, V. Kubillus and A. Burwell (1995) Psychiatrists: The Men behind Hitler. Los Angeles: Freedom Publications). For a less partisan but nonetheless disturbing account see J.-E. Meyer (1988) ‘The fate of the mentally ill in Germany during the Third Reich’, Psychological Medicine, 18: 575–81.
19. Quoted in Hoenig, ‘Kurt Schneider’, op. cit.
20. K. Schneider (1959) Clinical Psychopathology. New York: Grune & Stratton, p. 135.
21. R. E. Bourdillon, C. A. Clark and A. P. Ridges (1965) ‘“Pink spot” in the urine of schizophrenics’, Nature, 208: 453–5.
22. J. K. Wing, J. E. Cooper and N. Sartorius (1974) The Measurement and Classification of Psychiatric Symptoms. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
23. Quoted in Hoenig, ‘Kurt Schneider’, op. cit.
24. J. Kasanin (1933) ‘The acute schizoaffective psychoses’, American Journal of Psychiatry, 90: 97–126. See also F. K. Goodwin and K. R. Jamison (1990) Manic-Depressive Illness. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
25. B. T. Carroll (1998) ‘Karl Leonhard, 1904–1988’, American Journal of Psychiatry, 155: 1309.
26. See C. Perris (1995) ‘Leonhard and the cycloid psychoses’, in G. E. Berrios and R. Porter (eds.), A History of Clinical Psychiatry, London: Athlone Press.
27. K. Leonhard (1957/1979) The Classification of the Endogenous Psychoses (trans. R. Berman). New York: Irvington.
28. See Goodwin and Jamison, Manic-Depressive Illness, op. cit.
29. S. Kety (1980) ‘The syndrome of schizophrenia: unresolved questions and opportunities for research’, British Journal of Psychiatry, 136: 421–36.
30. M. Boyle (1990) Schizophrenia: A Scientific Delusion. London: Routledge.
31. For vivid descriptions of the disorder, see O. Sacks (1973) Awakenings. London: Duckworth.
32. See R. Porter (1995) ‘Parkinson’s disease (paralysis agitans)’, in Berrios and Porter (eds.), A History, op. cit.
Chapter 3 The Great Classification Crisis
1. R. E. Kendell (1975) The Role of Diagnosis in Psychiatry. Oxford: Blackwell.
2. T. Kuhn (1970) The Structure of Scientific Revolutions (2nd edn). Chicago: Chicago University Press.
3. A. F. Chalmers (1976) What is This Thing Called Science? Milton Keynes: Open University Press.
4. World Health Organization (1992) ICD-10: International Statistical Classification of Diseases and Related Health Problems (10th revised edn). Geneva: World Health Organization.
5. American Psychiatric Association (1994) Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders (4th edn). Washington, DC: APA.
6. My account of developments in standardized classification is largely drawn from Kendell, The Role of Diagnosis, op. cit. Other useful sources have been R. K. Blashfield (1984) The Classification of Psychopathology: NeoKraepelinian and Quantitative Approaches. New York: Plenum, and E. Shorter (1997) A History of Psychiatry. New York: Wiley.
7. Shorter, A History of Psychiatry, op. cit.
8. Blashfield, The Classification of Psychopathology, op. cit.
9. J. H. Masserman and H. T. Carmichael (1938) ‘Diagnosis and prognosis in psychiatry: with a follow-up study of the results of short term general hospital therapy in psychiatric cases’, Journal of Mental Science, 84: 893–946.
10. W. A. Hunt, C. L. Wittson and E. B. Hunt (1953) ‘A theoretical and practical analysis of the diagnostic process’, in P. H. Hoch and J. Zubin (eds.), Current Problems of Psychiatric Diagnosis. New York: Grune & Stratton.
11. P. Ash (1949) ‘The reliability of psychiatric diagnosis’, Journal of Abnormal and Social Psychology, 44: 272–6.
12. Detailed accounts are given in Blashfield, The Classification of Psychopathology, op. cit. and Kendell, The Role of Diagnosis, op. cit.
13. M. G. Sandifer, C. Pettus and D. Quade (1964) ‘A study of psychiatric diagnosis’, Journal of Nervous and Mental Disease, 139: 350–6.
14. M. Kramer (1961) ‘Some problems of international research suggested by observations on differences in first admission rates to the mental hospitals of England and Wales and of the United States’, in Proceedings of the Third World Congress of Psychiatry, 3. Montreal: Toronto University Press, pp. 153–60.
15. J. E. Cooper, R. E. Kendell, B. J. Gurland, L. Sharpe, J. R. M. Copeland and R. Simon (1972) Psychiatric Diagnosis in New York and London: Maudsley Monograph No. 20. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
16. World Health Organization (1973) International Pilot Study of Schizophrenia. Geneva: WHO.
17. See S. Bloch (1984) ‘The political misuse of psychiatry in the Soviet Union’, in S. Bloch and P. Chodoff (eds.), Psychiatric Ethics. Oxford: Oxford University Press, and S. Bloch and P. Reddaway (1977) Russia’s Political Hospitals: The Abuse of Psychiatry in the Soviet Union. New York: Basic Books.
Bloch seems to have assumed that psychiatric diagnosis is a relatively uncontroversial procedure, so that the Russians were simply wrong to assume that dissidents were mentally ill. For alternative perspectives, see: R. P. Bentall (1990) ‘Compulsory care’, in D. Evans (ed.), Why Should we Care? London: Macmillan; K. W. M. Fulford, A. Y. U. Smirnov and E. Snow (1993) ‘Concepts of disease and the abuse of psychiatry in the USSR’, British Journal of Psychiatry, 162; 801–10.
18. W. Reich (1984) ‘Psychiatric diagnosis as an ethical problem’, in Bloch and Chodoff (eds.), Psychiatric Ethics, op. cit. The italics are Reich’s.
19. This brief account of Spitzer’s career is taken from Blashfield, The Classification of Psychopathology, op. cit.
20. This brief biography of Spitzer is taken from Blashfield, op. cit. The article on DSM-II was R. L. Spitzer and P. T. Wilson (1968) ‘A guide to the American Psychiatric Association’s new diagnostic nomenclature’, American Journal of Psychiatry, 124: 1619–29.
21. R. L. Spitzer and J. L. Fliess (1974) ‘A reanalysis of the reliability of psychiatric diagnosis’, British Journal of Psychiatry, 123: 341–7.
22. Sandifer, Pettus and Quade, ‘A study of psychiatric diagnosis’, op. cit.
23. H. Kutchins and S. A. Kirk (1997) Making us Crazy: DSM – the Psychiatric Bible and the Creation of Mental Disorders. New York: Free Press.
24. D. Healy (1997) The Anti-depressant Era. Cambridge, M
A: Harvard University Press.
25. G. L. Klerman (1978) ‘The evolution of a scientific nosology’, in J. C. Shershow (ed.), Schizophrenia: Science and Practice. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.
26. J. P. Feighner, E. Robins, S. B. Guze, R. A. Woodruff, G. Winokur and R. Munoz (1972) ‘Diagnostic criteria for use in psychiatric research’, Archives of General Psychiatry, 26: 57–63.
27. American Psychiatric Association (1980). Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders (3rd edn). Washington, DC: APA.
28.. American Psychiatric Association (1987) Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders (revised 3rd edn). Washington, DC: APA.
29. R. E. Kendell (1991) ‘Relationship between DSM-IV and ICD-10’, Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 100: 297–301.
30. American Psychiatric Association (1994) Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders (4th edn). Washington, DC: APA.
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