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31. J. A. Russell and J. M. Carroll (1999) ‘On the bipolarity of positive and negative affect’, Psychological Bulletin, 125: 3–30.
32. D. Watson and A. Tellegren (1985) ‘Towards a consensual structure of mood’, Psychological Bulletin, 98: 219–35.
33. J. T. Cacioppo and W. L. Gardner (1999) ‘Emotion’, Annual Review of Psychology, 50: 191–214.
34. B. Parkinson, P. Totterdell, R. B. Briner and S. Reynolds (1996) Changing Moods: The Psychology of Mood and Mood Regulation. Harlow: Longman.
35. J. T. Larsen, A. P. McGraw and J. T. Cacioppo (2001) ‘Can people feel happy and sad at the same time?’ Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 81: 684–96.
36. See, for example, L. A. Clark, D. Watson and S. Reynolds (1995) ‘Diagnosis and classification of psychopathology: challenges to the current system and future directions’, Annual Review of Psychology, 46: 121–53; also, Goldberg and Huxley, Common Mental Disorders, op. cit.; and P. Tyrer (1990) ‘The division of neurosis: a failed classification’, Journal of the Royal Society of Medicine, 83: 614–16.
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38. Goldberg and Huxley, Common Mental Disorders, op. cit.
39. J. Angst (1990) ‘Depression and anxiety: a review of studies in the community and in primary care’, in N. Sartorius, D. Goldberg, G. de Girolmano, J. Costa e Silva, Y. LeCrubier and H.-U. Wittchen (eds.), Psychological Disorders in General Medical Settings. Bern: Huber-Hogrefe.
40. Clark, Watson and Reynolds, ‘Diagnosis and classification of psychopathology’, op. cit.
41. D. Watson, L. A. Clark, K. Weber, J. S. Assenheimer, M. E. Strauss and R. A. McCormick (1995) ‘Testing a tripartite model: II. Exploring the symptom structure of anxiety and depression in student, adult, and patient samples’, Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 104: 15–25; and idem, (1995) ‘Testing a tripartite model: I. Evaluating the convergent and discriminant validity of anxiety and depression symptom scales’, Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 104: 3–14.
42. N. C. Andreasen (1989) ‘Scale for the Assessment of Negative Symptoms (SANS)’, British Journal of Psychiatry, 155 (Supplement 7), 53–8.
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44. J. K. Wing and G. W. Brown (1970) Institutionalism and Schizophrenia. London: Cambridge University Press.
45. P. Barham and R. Hayward (1990) ‘Schizophrenia as a life process’, in R. P. Bentall (ed.), Reconstructing Schizophrenia. London: Routledge.
46. R. Warner (1985) Recovery from Schizophrenia: Psychiatry and Political Economy. New York: Routledge & Kegan Paul.
47. E. C. Johnstone, D. G. C. Owens, A. Gold, T. Crow and J. F. MacMillan (1981) ‘Institutionalization and the defects of schizophrenia’, British Journal of Psychiatry, 139: 195–203.
48. T. Lewander (1994) ‘Neuroleptics and the neuroleptic-induced deficit syndrome’, Acta Psychiatrica Scandinavica, 89: 8–13; N. R. Schooler (1994) ‘Deficit symptoms in schizophrenia: negative symptoms versus neuroleptic-induced deficits’, Acta Psychiatrica Scandinavica, 89: 21–6.
49. M. Harrow, C. A. Yonan, J. R. Sands and J. Marengo (1994) ‘Depression in schizophrenia: are neuroleptics, akinesia or anhedonia involved?’ Schizophrenia Bulletin, 20: 327–38.
50. Norman and Malla, ‘Dysphoric mood and symptomatology’, op. cit.
51. S. R. Hirsch, A. G. Jolley, T. E. Barnes, P. F. Liddle, D. A. Curson, A. Patel, A. York, S. Bercu and M. Patel (1989) ‘Dysphoric and depressive symptoms in schizophrenia’, Schizophrenia Research, 2: 259–64.
52. M. F. Pogue-Geile and M. Harrow (1987) ‘Negative symptoms in schizophrenia: longitudinal characteristics and etiological hypotheses’, in P. D. Harvey and E. F. Walker (eds.), Positive and Negative Symptoms of Psychosis: Description, Research and Future Directions. Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum.
53. W. T. Carpenter, D. W. Heinrichs and A. M. I. Wagman (1988) ‘Deficit and nondeficit forms of schizophrenia’, American Journal of Psychiatry, 145: 578–83.
54. B. Kirkpatrick, R. W. Buchanan, P. D. McKenney, L. D. Alphs and W. T. Carpenter (1989) ‘The Schedule for the Deficit Syndrome: an instrument for research in schizophrenia’, Psychiatry Research, 30: 119–23.
55. J. K. Bouricius (1989) ‘Negative symptoms and schizophrenia’, Schizophrenia Bulletin, 15: 201–7.
56. H. Berenbaum and T. F. Oltmanns (1992) ‘Emotional experience and expression in schizophrenia and depression’, Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 101: 37–44.
57. A. M. Kring, S. L. Kerr, D. A. Smith and J. M. Neale (1993) ‘Flat affect does not reflect diminished subjective experience of emotion’, Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 102: 507–17.
58. I. Myin-Germeys, P. A. E. G. Delespaul and M. W. deVries (2000) ‘Schizophrenia patients are more emotionally active than is assumed based on their behaviour’, Schizophrenia Bulletin, 26: 847–53.
59. C. E. Sison, M. Alpert, R. Fudge and R. M. Stern (1996) ‘Constricted expressiveness and psychological reactivity in schizophrenia’, Journal of Nervous and Mental Disease, 184: 589–97.
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61. J. J. Blanchard, A. Kring, J. M. Neale (1994) ‘Flat affect and deficits in affective expression in schizophrenia: a test of neuropsychological models’, Schizophrenia Bulletin, 20: 311–25.
62. For a summary of this work, see H. Ellgring and S. Smith (1998) ‘Affect regulation during psychosis’, in F. W. Flack and D. J. Laird (eds.), Emotions in Psychopathology: Theory and Research. New York: Oxford University Press.
63. S. Rado (1956) Psychoanalysis of Behaviour: Collected Papers (2 vols). New York: Grune & Stratton.
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67. J. J. Blanchard, A. S. Bellack and K. T. Mueser (1994) ‘Affective and social correlates of physical and social anhedonia in schizophrenia’, Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 103: 719–28.
68. J. Katsanis, W. G. Iacono, M. Beiser and L. Lacey (1992) ‘Clinical correlates of anhedonia and perceptual aberration in first-episode patients with schizophrenia and affective disorders’, Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 101: 184–91.
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Chapter 10 Depression and the Pathology of Self
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4. M. MacLachlan (1997) Culture and Health. London: Wiley.
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8. A. T. Beck (1976) Cognitive Therapy and the Emotional Disorders. New York: International Universities Press; A. T. Beck, A. J. Rush, B. F. Shaw and G. Emery (1979) Cognitive Therapy of Depression. New York: Guilford Press.
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12. For a recent discussion of these problems, see K. Reivich (1995) ‘The measurement of explanatory style’, in G. M. Buchanan and M. E. P. Seligman (eds.), Explanatory Style. Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum.
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14. H. M. Zullow (1995) ‘Pessimistic rumination in American politics and society’, in Buchanan and Seligman (eds.), Explanatory Style, op. cit.
15. Zullow et al., ‘Pessimistic explanatory style in the historical record’, op. cit.
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17. C. J. Robins and A. H. Hayes (1995) ‘The role of causal attributions in the prediction of depression’, in Buchanan and Seligman (eds.), Explanatory Style, op. cit.
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19. W. K. Campbell and C. Sedikides (1999) ‘Self-threat magnifies the self-serving bias: a meta-analytic integration’, Review of General Psychology, 3: 23–43.
20. See S. E. Taylor (1988) Positive Illusions. New York: Basic Books.
21. S. Mineka, C. L. Pury and A. G. Luten (1995) ‘Explanatory style in anxiety and depression’, in Buchanan and Seligman (eds.), Explanatory Style, op. cit.
22. G. I. Metalsky, L. J. Halberstadt and L. Y. Abramson (1987) ‘Vulnerability to depressive mood reactions: towards a more powerful test of the diathesis/stress and causal mediation components of the reformulated theory of depression’, Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 52: 386–93.
23. Robins and Hayes, ‘The role of causal attributions’, op. cit.
24. L. B. Alloy, L. Y. Abramson, W. G. Whitehouse, M. E. Hogan, N. A. Tashman, D. L. Steinberg, D. T. Rose and P. Donovan (1999) ‘Depressogenic cognitive styles: predictive validity, information processing and personality characteristics, and developmental origins’, Behaviour Research and Therapy, 37: 503–31.
25. L. Y. Abramson, G. I. Metalsky and L. B. Alloy (1989) ‘Hopelessness depression: a theory-based subtype of depression’, Psychological Review, 96: 358–72.
26. A. T. Beck, R. A. Steer, M. Kovacs and B. Garrison (1985) ‘Hopelessness and eventual suicide: a ten-year prospective study of patients hospitalized with suicidal ideation’, American Journal of Psychiatry, 142: 559–63; M. E. Weishaar and A. T. Beck (1990) ‘The suicidal patient: how should the therapist respond?’, in K. Hawton and P. Cowen (eds.), Dilemmas and Difficulties in the Management of Psychiatric Patients. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
27. R. Drake and P. G. Cotton (1986) ‘Depression, hopelessness and suicide in chronic schizophrenia’, British Journal of Psychiatry, 148: 554–9.
28. H. Tennen and S. Herzenberger (1987) ‘Depression, self-esteem and the absence of self-protective attributional biases’, Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 52: 72–80; H. Tennen, S. Herzenberger and H. F. Nelson (1987) ‘Depressive attributional style: the role of self-esteem’, Journal of Personality, 55: 631–60.
29. D. M. Romney (1994) ‘Cross-validating a causal model relating attributional style, self-esteem, and depression: an heuristic study’, Psychological Reports, 74: 203–7.
30. P. Robson (1989) ‘Development of a new self-report measure of self-esteem’, Psychological Medicine, 19: 513–18.
31. G. W. Brown, A. T. Bifulco and B. Andrews (1990) ‘Self-esteem and depression: IV. Effect on course and recovery’, Social Psychiatry and Psychiatric Epidemiology, 25: 244–9; G. W. Brown, A. T. Bifulco, H. O. Veiel and B. Andrews (1990) ‘Self-esteem and depression: II. Social correlates of self-esteem’, Social Psychiatry and Psychiatric Epidemiology, 25: 225–34.
32. J. D. Campbell (1990) ‘Self-esteem and the clarity of the self-concept’, Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 59: 538–49.
33. J. Dent and J. D. Teasdale (1988) ‘Negative cognition and the persistence of depression’, Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 97: 29–34; C. Hammen, D. G. Dyke and D. J. Micklovitch (1986) ‘Stability and severity parameters of depressive self-schema responding’, Journal of Social and Clinical Psychology, 4: 23–45; C. Hammen, T. Marks, A. Mayall and R. de Mayo (1985) ‘Depressive self-schemas, life stress and vulnerability to depression’, Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 94: 308–19; J. M. G. Williams, D. Healy, J. D. Teasdale, W. White and E. S. Paykel (1990) ‘Dysfunctional attitudes and vulnerability to persistent depression’, Psychological Medicine, 20: 375–81.
34. Lyon, Startup, Bentall, ‘Social cognition and the manic defense’, op. cit.
35. K. D. Greenier, M. H. Kernis and S. B. Waschull (1995) ‘Not all high (or low) self-esteem people are the same: theory and research on stability of self-esteem’, in M. H. Kernis (ed.), Efficacy, Agency, and Self-Esteem. New York: Plenum; M. H. Kernis (1993) ‘The role of stability and level of self-esteem in psychological functioning’, in R. F. Baumeister (ed.), Self-Esteem: The Puzzle of Low Self-Regard. New York: Plenum; M. H. Kernis, D. P. Cornell, C. R. Sun, A. Berry and T. Harlow (1993) ‘There’s more to self-esteem than whether it is high or low: the importance of stability of self-esteem’, Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 65: 1190–204.
36. K. D. Greenier, M. H. Kernis, C. W. McNamara, S. B. Waschull, A. J. Berry, C. E. Herlocker and T. A. Abend (1999) ‘Individual differences in reactivity to events: re-examining the roles of stability and level of self-esteem’, Journal of Personality, 67: 185–208.
37. Beck, Cognitive Therapy and the Emotional Disorders, op. cit.
38. G. W. Lloyd and W. A. Lishman (1975) ‘Effects of depression on the speed of recall of pleasant and unpleasant experiences’, Psychological Medicine, 5:173–80.
39. J. D. Teasdale and S. J. Fogarty (1979) ‘Differential effects of induced mood on retrieval of pleasant and unpleasant events from episodic memory’, Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 3: 248–57.
40. J. Glover (1999) Humanity: A Moral History of the Twentieth Century. London: Jonathan Cape.
41. E. T. Higgins (1987) ‘Self-discrepancy: a theory relating self and affect’, Psychological Review, 94: 319–40; E. T. Higgins, R. Bond, R. Klein and T. J. Strauman (1986) ‘Self-discrepancies and emotional vulnerability: how magnitude, accessibility and type of discrepancy influence affect’, Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 41: 1–15.
42. T. J. Strauman (1989) ‘Self-discrepancies in clinical depression and social phobia: cognitive structures
that underline emotional disorders?’ Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 98: 14–22.
43. For a detailed discussion of this issue, see J. Boldero and J. Francis (1999) ‘Ideals, oughts, and self-regulation: are there qualitatively distinct self-guides?’ Asian Journal of Social Psychology, 2: 343–55.
44. T. J. Strauman and E. T. Higgins (1987) ‘Automatic activation of self-discrepancies and emotional syndromes: when cognitive structures influence affect’, Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 98: 14–22; T. J. Strauman, A. M. Lemieux and C. L. Coe (1993) ‘Self-discrepancy and natural killer cell activity: immunological consequences of negative self-evaluation’, Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 64: 1042–52.
45. R. P. Bentall, P. Kinderman and K. Manson (in submission) ‘Self-discrepancies in bipolar-affective disorder’.
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