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35. J. M. Hooley, J. Orley and J. D. Teasdale (1989) ‘Predictors of relapse in unipolar depressives: expressed emotion, marital distress and perceived criticism’, Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 98: 229–37.
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37. N. Tarrier and G. Turpin (1992) ‘Psychosocial factors, arousal and schizophrenic relapse: the physiological data’, British Journal of Psychiatry, 161: 3–11.
38. M. Goldstein, I. Rosenfarb, S. Woo and K. Nuechterlein (1994) ‘Intrafamilial relationships and the course of schizophrenia’, Acta Psychiatrica Scandinavica, 90 (Supplement 384): 60–6.
39. C. Barrowclough, N. Tarrier, L. Humphreys, J. Ward, L. Gregg and B. Andrews (in press) ‘Self-esteem in schizophrenia: the relationship between self-evaluation, family attitudes and symptomatology’, Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology.
40. D. J. Miklowitz, M. J. Goldstein, I. R. Falloon and J. A. Doane (1984) ‘Interactional correlates of expressed emotion in the families of schizophrenics’, British Journal of Psychiatry, 144: 482–7.
41. D. J. Miklowitz (1994) ‘Family risk indicators in schizophrenia’, Schizophrenia Bulletin, 20: 137–49.
42. C. R. Brewin, B. MacCarthy, K. Duda and C. E. Vaughn (1991) ‘Attribution and expressed emotion in the relatives of patients with schizophrenia’, Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 100: 546–54.
43. C. Barrowclough, M. Johnston and N. Tarrier (1994) ‘Attributions, expressed emotion and patient relapse: an attributional model of relatives’ response to schizophrenic illness’, Behavior Therapy, 25: 67–88.
44. G. Fadden, P. E. Bebbington and L. Kuipers (1987) ‘The impact of functional psychiatric illness on the patient’s family’, British Journal of Psychiatry, 150: 285–92.
45. E. Kuipers and D. Raune (2000) ‘The early development of expressed emotion and burden in the families of first-onset psychosis’, in M. Birchwood, D. Fowler and C. Jackson (eds.), Early Intervention in Psychosis. London: Wiley, pp. 128–40.
46. D. Diamond and J. Doane (1994) ‘Disturbed attachment and negative affective style: an intergenerational spiral’, British Journal of Psychiatry, 164: 770–81.
47. G. Paley, D. A. Shapiro and A. Worrall-Davies (2000) ‘Familial origins of expressed emotion in relatives of people with schizophrenia’, Journal of Mental Health, 9: 655–63.
48. E. Kuipers and E. Moore (1995) ‘Expressed emotion and staff–client relationships: implications for community care of the severely mentally ill’, International Journal of Mental Health, 24: 13–26; E. Moore, R. A. Ball and L. Kuipers (1992) ‘Expressed emotion in staff working with the long-term adult mentally ill’, British Journal of Psychiatry, 161: 802–8; E. Moore and E. Kuipers (1999) ‘The measurement of expressed emotion in relationships between staff and service users: the use of short speech samples’, British Journal of Clinical Psychology, 38: 345–56; N. Oliver and E. Kuipers (1996) ‘Stress and its relationship to expressed emotion in community mental health workers’, International Journal of Social Psychiatry, 42: 150–9.
49. R. A. Ball, E. Moore and L. Kuipers (1992) ‘Expressed emotion in community care staff: a comparison of patient outcome in a nine month follow-up of two hostels’, Social Psychiatry and Psychiatric Epidemiology, 27: 35–9.
50. K. S. Snyder, C. J. Wallace, K. Moe and R. P. Liberman (1994) ‘Expressed emotion by residential care workers and residents’ symptoms and quality of life’, Hospital and Community Psychiatry, 45: 1141–3.
51. P. E. Bebbington, J. Bowen, S. R. Hirsch and E. A. Kuipers (1995) ‘Schizophrenia and psychosocial stresses’, in S. R. Hirsch and D. R. Weinberger (eds.), Schizophrenia. Oxford: Blackwell, pp. 587–604.
52. G. W. Brown and T. Harris (1978) Social Origins of Depression. New York: Free Press.
53. G. W. Brown and P. Moran (1998) ‘Emotion and the etiology of depressive disorders’, in W. F. Flack and J. D. Laird (eds.), Emotions in Psychopathology: Theory and Research. New York: Oxford University Press, pp. 171–84.
54. G. W. Brown and R. Prudo (1981) ‘Psychiatric disorders in a rural and an urban population: 1. Aetiology of depression’, Psychological Medicine, 11: 581–99.
55. G. W. Brown and J. L. T. Birley (1968) ‘Crises and life changes and the onset of schizophrenia’, Journal of Health and Social Behaviour, 9: 203–14.
56. Bebbington et al., ‘Schizophrenia and psychosocial stresses’, op. cit.
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58. S. L. Johnson and J. E. Roberts (1995) ‘Life events and bipolar disorder: implications from biological theories’, Psychological Bulletin, 117: 434–49.
59. S. L. Johnson and I. Miller (1997) ‘Negative life events and time to recovery from episodes of bipolar disorder’, Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 106: 449–57.
60. R. Finlay-Jones and G. W. Brown (1981) ‘Types of stressful life events and the onset of anxiety and depressive disorders’, Psychological Medicine, 11: 803–15.
61. Brown and Moran, ‘Emotion and the etiology of depressive disorders’, op. cit.
62. T. Harris (1987) ‘Recent developments in the study of life events in relation to psychiatric and physical disorders’, in B. Cooper (ed.), Psychiatric Epidemiology: Progress and Prospects. London: Croom Helm, pp. 81–102.
63. R. Day, J. A. Neilsen, A. Korten, G. Ernberg, K. C. Dube, J. Gebhart, A. Jablensky, C. Leon, A. Marsella, M. Olatawura, N. Sartorius, E. Stromgren, R. Takahashi, N. Wig and L. C. Wynne (1987) ‘Stressful life events preceding the onset of acute schizophrenia: a cross-national study from the World Health Organization’, Culture, Medicine and Psychiatry, 11: 123–206; T. Fuchs (1999) ‘Life events in late paraphrenia and depression’, Psychopathology, 32: 60–9.
64. S. Malkoff-Schwartz, E. Frank, B. Anderson, J. T. Sherrill, L. Siegel, D. Patterson and D.J. Kupfer (1998) ‘Stressful lifeevents andsocial rhythm disruption in the onset of manic and depressive episodes of bipolar disorder’, Archives of General Psychiatry, 55: 702–7.
65. S. L. Johnson, D. Sandow, B. Meyer, R. Winters, I. Miller, D. Solomon and G. Keitner (2000) ‘Increases in manic symptoms after life events involving goal attainment’, Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 109: 721–7.
66. Bebbington et al., ‘Schizophrenia and psychosocial stresses’, op. cit.
67. M. Bowers, N. Boutros, D. C. D’Souza and S. Madonick (2001) ‘Substance abuse as a risk factor for schizophrenia and related disorders’, International Journal of Mental Health, 30: 33–57; A. Johns (2001) ‘Psychiatric effects of cannabis’, British Journal of Psychiatry, 178: 116–22.
68. S. M. Stakowski, M. P. DelBello, D. E. Fleck and S. Arndt (2000) ‘The impact of substance abuse on the course of bipolar disorder’, Biological Psychiatry, 48: 477–85.
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Chapter 17 From the Cradle to the Clinic
1. J. Milton (1671) Paradise Regained.
2. S. Lewis, N. Tarrier, G. Haddock, R. P. Bentall, P. Kinderman, D. Kingdon, R. Siddle, R. Drake, J. Everitt, K. Leadley, A. Benn, K. Grazebrook, C. Haley, S. Akhtar, L. Davies, S. Palmer, B. Faragher and G. Dunn (2002) ‘Randomised, controlled trial of cognitive-behaviour therapy in early schizophrenia: acute phase outcomes’, British Journal of Psychiatry, 181 (Supplement 43): s91–s97. See also R. J. Drake, C. J. Haley, S. Akhtar and S. W. Lewis (2000) ‘Causes of duration of untreated psychosis in schizophrenia’, British Journal of Psychiatry, 177: 511–15.
3. H. Hafner, K. Maurer, W. Loffler and A. Riecher-Rossler (1993) ‘The influence of age and sex on the onset and early course of schizophrenia’, British Journal of Psychiatry, 162: 80–6.
4. F. K. Goodwin and K. R. Jamison (1990) Manic-Depressive Illness. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
5. E. Leibenluft (1996) ‘Women with bipolar illness: clinical and research issues’, American Journal of Psychiatry, 153: 163–73.
6. A. M. Vicente and J. L. Kennedy (1997) ‘The genetics of neurodevelopment and schizophrenia’, in M. S. Keshavan and R. M. Murray (eds.), Neurodevelopment and Adult Psychopathology. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
7. I. Feinberg (1982) ‘Schizophrenia and late maturational brain changes in man’, Psychopharmocology Bulletin, 18: 29–31.
8. E. T. Bullmore, P. O’Connell, S. Frangou and R. M. Murray (1997) ‘Schizophrenia as a developmental disorder of neural network integrity: the dysplastic net hypothesis’, in Keshavan and Murray (eds.), Neurodevelopment and Adult Psychopathology, op. cit.
9. H. Hafner, W. an der Heiden, S. Behrens, W. F. Gattaz, M. Hambrecht, W. Loffler, K. Maurer, P. Munk-Jorgensen, B. Nowotny, A. Riecher-Rossler and A. Stein (1998) ‘Causes and consequences of the gender difference in age at onset of schizophrenia’, Schizophrenia Bulletin, 24: 99–113.
10. Quoted in A. Jablensky (1999) ‘The conflict of the nosologists: views on schizophrenia and manic-depressive illness in the early part of the 20th century’, Schizophrenia Research, 39: 95–100.
11. R. Lewontin (2000) The Triple Helix: Gene, Organism and Environment. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.
12. W. T. Dickins and J. R. Flynn (2001) ‘Heritability estimates versus large environmental effects: the IQ paradox resolved’, Psychological Review, 108: 346–69.
13.A. E. Farmer (1996) ‘The genetics of depressive disorders’, International Review of Psychiatry, 8: 369–72.
14. R. Mojtabai and R. O. Rieder (1998) ‘Limitations of the symptom-orientated approach to psychiatric research’, British Journal of Psychiatry, 173: 198–202.
15. H. Berenbaum, T. F. Oltmanns and I. I. Gottesman (1987) ‘A twin study perspective on positive and negative symptoms of schizophrenia’, in P. D. Harvey and E. F. Walker (eds.), Positive and Negative Symptoms of Psychosis: Description, Research and Future Directions. Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum.
16. K. Kendler, L. Karkowski-Shuman, F. A. O’Neill, R. E. Straub, C. J. MacLean and D. Walsh (1997) ‘Resemblance of psychotic symptoms and syndromes in affected sibling pairs from the Irish study of high-density schizophrenia families: evidence for possible etiologic heterogeneity’, American Journal of Psychiatry, 154: 191–8.
17. M. T. Singer and L. C. Wynne (1965) ‘Thought disorder and family relations of schizophrenics. III. Methodology using projective techniques’, Archives of General Psychiatry, 12: 187–200; M. T. Singer and L. C. Wynne (1965) ‘Thought disorder and family relations of schizophrenics. IV. Results and implications’, Archives of General Psychiatry, 12: 201–12.
18. ‘Projective’ rather than standardized tests were employed. In these kinds of tests, for example the familiar Rorschach test in which the participant is asked to describe a series of ink blots, the person being assessed is asked to generate imaginative responses which are then analysed for their meaning. Most projective tests were designed by psychoanalysts or psychologists inspired by Freud’s theory, and they have tended to fall into disuse, largely because the interpretation of the participant’s responses is highly subjective, and scores are often unreliable. However, Singer and Wynne used a very detailed scoring protocol in order to avoid this criticism.
19. An apparent exception, which seems to have knocked British research into communication deviance stone dead, was a study reported in S. R. Hirsch and J. P. Leff (1971) ‘Parental abnormalities of verbal communication in the transmission of schizophrenia’, Psychological Medicine, 1: 118–27. In fact, differences between the parents of schizophrenia patients and the parents of psychiatric controls were observed in this study, although only aminority of the parents of the schizophrenia patients showed evidence of communication deviance.
20. N. M. Docherty, J. P. Rhinewine, R. P. Labhart and S. W. Gordinier (1998) ‘Communication disturbance and family psychiatric history in parents of schizophrenic patients’, Journal of Nervous and Mental Disease, 186: 761–8.
21. N. M. Docherty, M. J. Hall and S. W. Gordinier (1998) ‘Affective reactivity of speech in schizophrenia patients and their nonschizophrenic relatives’, Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 107: 461–7.
22. M. A. Nugter, P. M. A. J. Dingemans, D. H. Linszen and A. J. W. van der Does (1997) ‘The relationships between expressed emotion, affective style and communication deviance in recent-onset schizophrenia’, Acta Psychiatrica Scandinavica, 96: 445–51.
23. O. Gambini, A. Campana, F. Macciardi and S. Scarone (1997) ‘A preliminary report of a strong genetic component for thought disorder in normals’, Neuropsychobiology, 36: 13–18.
24. D. K. Kinney, P. S. Holzman, B. Jacobsen, L. Jansson, B. Faber, W. Hildebrand, E. Kasell and M. E. Zimbalist (1997) ‘Thought disorder in schizophrenic and control adoptees and their relatives’, Archives of General Psychiatry, 54: 475–9.
25. K.-E. Wahlberg, L. C. Wynne, H. Oja, P. Keskitalo, L. Pykalainen, L. Lahti, J. Moring, M. Naarala, A. Sorri, M. Seitamaa, K. Laksy, J. Kolassa and P. Tienari (1997) ‘Gene–environment interaction in vulnerability to schizophrenia: findings from the Finnish Adoptive Family Study of Schizophrenia’, American Journal of Psychiatry, 154: 355–62; K.-E. Wahlberg, L. C. Wynne, H. Oja, P. Keskitalo, H. Anais-Tanner, P. Koistinen, T. Tarvainen, H. Hakko, J. Moring, M. Naarala, A. Sorri and P. Tienari (2000) ‘Thought disorder index of Finnish adoptees and communication deviance of their adoptive parents’, Psychological Medicine, 30: 127–36.
26. F. L. Coolidge, L. L. Thede and K. L. Jang (2001) ‘Heritability of personality disorders in childhood: a preliminary investigation’, Journal of Personality Disorders, 15: 33–40; A. A. Dahl (1993) ‘The personality disorders: a critical review of family, twin and adoption studies’, Journal of Personality Disorders (Supplement 1): 86–99; S. Torgersen, S. Lygren, P. A. Oien, I. Skre, S. Onstad, J. Edvardsen, K. Tambs and E. Kringlen (2000) ‘A twin study of personality disorders’, Comprehensive Psychiatry, 41: 416–25.
27. K. S. Kendler, A. M. Gruenberg and J. S. Strauss (1981) ‘An independent analysis of the Copenhagen sample of the Danish Adoption Study of Schizophrenia: III. The relationship between paranoid psychosis (delusional disorder) and the schizophrenia spectrum disorders’, Archives of General Psychiatry, 38: 985–7; K. S. Kendler and P. Hays (1981) ‘Paranoid psychosis (delusional disorder) and schizophrenia: a family history study’, Archives of General Psychiatry, 38: 547–51; K. S. Kendler, C. C. Masterson and K. L. Davis (1985) ‘Psychiatric illness in first-degree relatives of patients with paranoid psychosis, schizophrenia and medical illness’, British Journal of Psychiatry, 147: 524–31.
28. R. H. Dworkin, M. F. Lenzenweger, S. O. Moldin, G. F. Skillings and S. E. Levick (1988) ‘A multidimensional approach to the ge
netics of schizophrenia’, American Journal of Psychiatry, 145: 1077–83; A. Jorgensen, T. W. Teasdale, J. Parnas, F. Schulsinger, H. Shulsinger and S. A. Mednick (1987) ‘The Copenhagen High-Risk Project: the diagnosis of maternal schizophrenia and its relation to offspring diagnosis’, British Journal of Psychiatry, 151: 753–7; S. Onstad, I. Skre, S. Torgersen and E. Kringlen (1991) ‘Subtypes of schizophrenia: evidence from a twin-family study’, Acta Psychiatrica Scandinavica, 84: 203–6.
29. R. C. Lewontin (1993) The Doctrine of DNA: Biology as Ideology. London: Penguin.
30. S. H. Barondes (1998) Mood Genes: Hunting for the Origins of Mania and Depression. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
31. Vicente and Kennedy, ‘The genetics of neurodevelopment and schizophrenia’, op. cit.
32. J.-P. Changeux and S. Dehaene (1989) ‘Neuronal models of cognitive functions’, Cognition, 33: 63–109.
33. W. T. Greenough, J. E. Black and C. S. Wallace (1987) ‘Experience and brain development’, Child Development, 58: 539–59; W. T. Greenough (1993) ‘Brain adaption to experience: an update’, in M. H. Johnson (ed.), Brain Development and Cognition: A Reader. Oxford: Blackwell.
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