12. Ibid., p. 6.
13. For an overview, see Lawrence M. Friedman, “The Social and Political Context of the War on Poverty: An Overview,” and discussions by Nick Kotz and Robert Lapman in Robert H. Haveman, ed., A Decade of Federal Antipoverty Programs: Achievements, Failures, and Lessons (New York: Academic Press 1977).
14. United States Congress, Senate Subcommittee on Employment, Manpower, and Poverty of the Committee on Labor and Public Welfare, Hearings to Establish a Select Committee on Nutrition and Human Needs, 90th Cong., 2nd Sess., May 23–June 13, 1968, Senate Hearings, Employment Subcommittee 1968, p. 12.
15. Ibid. Congressional focus on hunger culminated in George McGovern’s formation of a Senate Select Committee at the end of 1968. This committee met in venues across the country for almost ten years. While the Committee reported no legislation to the Senate floor, it nonetheless drew national attention to the problem of hunger and poverty. In 1977 the Committee terminated its hearings after national legislation eliminating the purchase price of food stamps. See Peter K. Eisinger, Toward an End to Hunger in America (Washington, D.C.: Brookings Institution Press, 1998), 78–83.
16. See Susan Lynn, “Gender and Progressive Politics: A Bridge to Social Activism of the 1960s,” and Harriet Hyman Alonso, “Mayhem and Madness: Women’s Peace Advocates during the McCarthy Era,” both in Joanne Myerowitz, Not June Cleaver: Women and Gender in Postwar America, 1945–1960 (Philadelphia: Temple University Press, 1994).
17. On the women’s movement in the post-World War II period, see Susan Levine, Degrees of Equality: The American Association of University Women and the Challenge of Twentieth Century Feminism (Philadelphia: Temple University Press, 1995). Also, Leila J. Rupp and Verta Taylor, Survival in the Doldrums: The American Women’s Rights Movement 1945 to the 1960s (Columbus: Ohio State University Press, 1991); Meyerowitz, Not June Cleaver; Dorothy Sue Cobble, The Other Women’s Movement: Workplace Justice and Social Rights in Modern America (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 2004); and Daniel Horowitz, Betty Friedan and the Making ofthe Feminine Mystique: The American Left, the Cold War, and Modern Feminism (Amherst: University of Massachusetts Press 1998).
18. Committee on School Lunch Participation, Their Daily Bread,3.
19. These organizations worked together in a number of arenas. The NCJW, NCNW, NCCW, and Church Women United, for example, also formed Women in Community Service (WICS), a group that recruited for the Job Corps and worked on employment training. Michael L. Billett, Launching the War on Poverty: An Oral History (New York: Twayne Publishers, 1996), 305.
20. Olya Margolin to Helen Raebeck, April 18, 1966; Jean Fairfax to Mrs. Joseph Willen, July 5, 1966; Jean Fairfax to Mrs. Adele Trobe, March 22, 1967, National Council of Jewish Women (NCJW), Washington, D.C., Office, Box 191, School Lunch Program Correspondence, 1966–67, Library of Congress. Ultimately, the CSLP interviewers also included staff members from the American Friends Service Committee and the Georgia Council on Human Relations as well as volunteers from the member organizations.
21. Jean Fairfax to Howard Davis, March 24,1966, NCJW Washington, D.C., Office, Box 191, School Lunch Program Correspondence, 1966–67.
22. Committee on School Lunch Participation, Their Daily Bread 24.
23. Ibid., 13, 2, 4.
24. Ibid., 38–40.
25. Ibid., 38–39
26. Ibid., 13–19.
27. Ibid., 26–28, 49–50.
28. Ibid., 53.
29. Ibid., 124.
30. Olya Margolin to Jean Fairfax, April 5, 1968, NCJW Washington, D.C., Office, Box 191, School Lunch Program Correspondence, January-April 1968.
31. Telegram from the Committee on School Lunch Participation to Orville Freeman, April 16, 1968 (signed by all five participating organizations). NCJW, Washington, D.C., Office, Box 191, School Lunch Program Correspondence, January-April, 1968. Also see William H. Chafe, Civilities and Civil Rights: Greensboro, North Carolina and the Black Struggle for Freedom (New York: Oxford University Press, 1980).
32. See Ruth Rosen, The World Split Open: How the Modern Women’s Movement Changed America (New York: Penguin Books, 2000). In ch. 3, Rosen emphasizes the social rifts of the late 1960s.
33. Confidential letter, Jean Fairfax to “Friends” (Olya), April 17, 1968, NCJW, Washington, D.C., Office, Box 191, School Lunch Program Correspondence, January-April 1968. Fairfax later founded Women and Philanthropy and the Association of Black Foundation Executives. During the 1980s, Jean, along with her sister Betty Fairfax, took up philanthropy, concentrating their resources on education for black youth.
34. Senate Employment Subcommittee, 1968, p. 68.
35. Memorandum to Members of the Committee on School Lunch Participation from Jean Fairfax, April 22, 1968, NCJW, Washington, D.C., Office, Box 191, School Lunch Correspondence, January-April 1968; and Jeffrey M. Berry, Feeding the Hungry: Rulemaking in the Foodstamp Program (New Brunswick, N.J.: Rutgers University Press, 1984), 48.
36. United States Congress, House Committee on Education and Labor, Hearings, Malnutrition and Federal Food Service Programs, 90th Cong., 2nd Sess., May 21–June 3, 1968 (hereafter, House Committee on Education and Labor 1968) 6.
37. Department of Agriculture Administrative History, vol. 1, ch. 8, p. 110, LBJ Library.
38. Senate Select Committee, Part 11, July 9–11, 1969. Vermont, New Jersey, Pennsylvania, Maine, Illinois, Minnesota, Iowa, and California all undertook tax reviews.
39. Ibid., 3478.
40. Senate Select Committee, Part 10, May 14, June 27, 1969, p. 3283.
41. Legal historian Hendrik Hartog discusses the idea of “rights” and collective claims for a redress of grievances. See his “The Constitution of Aspiration and ‘The Rights that Belong to Us All,’” Journal of American History, 74, no. 3 (December 1987); 1013–34.
42. Department of Agriculture Administrative History, vol. 1, ch. 3., p. 120. LBJ Library.
43. Press release, United States Department of Agriculture, Washington, D.C., April 16, 1968. NCJW—Washington, D.C. Office, Box 191, School Lunch Program Correspondence, January-April 1968; Memorandum to Josepha A. Califano, Jr., from Orville L. Freeman, February 1,1968, White House Central Files, EX AG 7, AG7–2, Box 10, LBJ Library.
44. Department of Agriculture Administrative History, vol. 1, ch. 3, p. 104, LBJ Library.
45. “More Physicians Sought in Nation,” NYT, March 6, 1968, and “Senate Approves Pilot Lunch Plan,” NYT, April 18, 1968.
46. For 1967–68, national enrollment in public and private schools was 50.7 million. An estimated 36.8 million, or 73%, were enrolled in participating schools. “Actual” average participation in the National School Lunch Program was 18.9 million, or 37%, of national enrollment. Gunderson, “The National School Lunch Program,” 21.
47. Henry M. Levin, “A Decade of Policy Developments in Improving Education and Training for Low-Income Populations,” in Robert H. Haveman, ed., A Decade of Federal Antipoverty Programs: Achievements, Failures, and Lessons (New York: Academic Press, 1977), 131.
48. Laurence E. Lynn, Jr., “A Decade of Policy Developments in the IncomeMaintenance System,” in Haveman, ed., A Decade of Federal Antipoverty Programs; and Berry, Feeding the Hungry.
49. “Administration Making Significant Gains in Anti-Hunger Drive,” NYT, February 5, 1971.
50. Senate Select Committee, Part 11, July 9–11, 1969, p. 3408.
51. United States Congress, Senate Committee on Agriculture and Forestry, Hearings, School Lunch and Child Nutrition Programs, 91st Cong., 2nd Sess., September 29–October 1, 1969 (hereafter, Senate Agriculture Committee 1969), 156.
52. “McGovern Scores Lunch Program,” NYT, November 26, 1970.
53. Henry M. Levin, “A Decade of Policy Developments in Improving Education and Training for Low-Income Populations,” in Haveman, ed., A Decade of Federal Antipoverty Programs.
54. See Robert C. Lieberman, Shifting the Color Line: Race and the American Welfare State (Cambridge, Mass.: H
arvard University Press, 1998). He argues that the policy conflict of the period centered between “contending institutional visions of welfare. On one side, an administration committed to an expansive vision of racial equality in social citizenship sought to nationalize welfare and reduce local discretion Onthe other side, the parochial forces … pulling authority out of Washington and into the racially explosive politics of cities and states” (170).
55. Senate Agriculture Committee, 1969, p. 217. Also, “Action Report,” The National Council on Hunger and Malnutrition in the United States. This was a coalition of groups including Ralph Abernathy, Leslie Dunbar, Walter Reuther, and Marian Wright Edleman. NCJW, Washington, D.C., Office, Box 369, National Council on Hunger and Malnutrtion in the United States, 1970.
56. Senate Agriculture Committee, 1969, p. 218.
57. Ibid.
58. See Feliia Kornluh, “A Human Right to Welfare?: Social Protest among Welfare Recipients after World War II,” in Linda K. Kerber and Jane Sherron DeHart, eds., Women’s America: Refocusing the Past (New York: Oxford University Press, 2000).
59. The New School Lunch Program Bill of Rights, pamphlet, Box 395, Folder: School Lunch Program Background Material, undated, NCJW, Washington, D.C. Office, Library of Congress.
60. Senate Select Committee, Part 11, July 9–11, 1969, p. 3410.
61. United States Congress, House Committee on Education and Labor, Hearings, 91st Cong., 1st Sess., March 6, 1969, p. 45. Also see Senate Agriculture Committee, 1969, p. 218. Private groups continued to contribute to the programs as well. In Georgia, for example, in 1970, the General Federation of Women’s Clubs conducted a fund-raising campaign that brought in over $20,000 “to help Georgia schools provide lunches to the needy.” Food and Nutrition News, Food and Nutrition Service, U.S. Department of Agriculture, April 1970. In NCJW Washington D.C. Office, Box 385, School Lunch Program Correspondence, July 1970.
62. Perryman, “School Lunch Programs,” in Mayer, U.S. Nutrition Policies, 219.
63. All from Senate Agriculture Committee, 1969, p. 218.
64. T. W. Marz to Richard B. Russell, October 23, 1969, and Richard B. Russell to A. J. Shaw, November 3, 1969, Richard B. Russell Collection, Series IX B, Box 7, Richard B. Russell Library for Political Research and Studies, University of Georgia Libraries, Athens.
65. Clipping from the Riverside County, Calif., Press Enterprise, April 12, 1969, in Senate Select Committee, Part 11, July 9–11, 1969, p. 3615.
66. Ibid., 3409–10.
67. Ibid., 3534–35.
68. “Impact Reports: Everyman’s Guide to Federal Programs,” vol. 1, no. 1, p. 10, in Senate Select Committee, Part 11, Appendix.
69. Ibid., Part 10, May 14, June 27, 1969, pp. 3159–60.
70. Ibid., Part 11, July 9–11, 1969, pp. 3534–38.
71. Ibid., 3451.
72. Ibid., 3464.
73. House Committee on Education and Labor, 1968, p. 242.
74. The Agriculture Department was slow to force states to comply either with free lunch requirements or food stamp outreach. In the case of food stamps, it took a series of court actions to force the department to hire state coordinators monitor local programs. See Maurice MacDonald, Food, Stamps, and Income Maintenance (New York: Academic Press, 1977), 17.
75. “Panel Finds Half of Poor Still Hungry,” NYT, October 7, 1971.
76. Mrs. Norma Goff to President Johnson, March 16, 1966, White House Central Files, GEN AG 7–2, Box 11, 4/1/66–44/66, LBJ Library.
77. John Gehn to President Johnson, March 8, 1966, White House Central Files, GEN AG 7–2, Boc 11, 3/23/66–3/21/66, LBJ Library.
78. Jerry Peterson to President Johnson, February 18,1966, White House Central Files, GEN AG 7–2, Box 11, 3/18/66–3/22/66, LBJ Library. Box 11 contains numerous files filled with letters from school administrators across the country.
79. Richard Russell to A. J. Shaw (Deputy Office of the County Council, Modesto, Calif.) November 3, 1969, Richard Russell Papers, Series IX:B, Box 7, Folder: The School Lunch Program, January 1969–November 1969, Richard B. Russell Collection, Richard B. Russell Library for Political Research and Studies, University of Georgia Libraries, Athens.
80. Senate Subcommittee on Employment, 153.
81. United States Congress, House Subcommittee on Education, Committee on Education and Labor, Hearings on Bill to Establish Program of Nutrition Education, 93rd Cong., 1st Sess., March 8 and July 11, 1973, p. 22.
82. Ibid., 30.
83. Quoted in Gilbert Y. Steiner, The Children’s Cause (Washington, D.C.: Brookings Institution, 1976), 176, 189.
84. See ibid., 193. Steiner says the ASFSA “marshaled an army of “little old ladies in tennis shoes” to oppose the program’s redirection (193).
85. Patricia L. Fitzgerald, “Grassroots and Growing Pains,” School Foodservice and Nutrition, May 1996.
86. Steiner, The Children’s Cause, 178. In 1969 the National School Lunch Program as well as the Food Stamp Programs were put under the authority of the newly created Food and Nutrition Service.
87. Committee on School Lunch Participation, Their Daily Bread, 126.
88. United States Congress, Senate Committee on Agriculture and Forestry, Hearings on the School Lunch Program, 92nd Cong., 1st Sess., September 16 1971, p. 21.
89. Ibid., 21.
90. On compromises in public policy, see Alice Kessler-Harris, In Pursuit of Equity: Women, Men, and the Quest for Economic Citizenship in the 20th Century (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2001), and Kathryn Kish Sklar, Florence Kelley and the Nation’s Work (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1995).
CHAPTER 8. LET THEM EAT KETCHUP
1. Patricia L. Fitzgerald, “Decades of Dedication: The Early Years,” School Foodservice and Nutrition 2 no. 96 (October 1995): 55–60. On the public-private relationship in American social policy, see Jennifer Klein, For All These Rights: Business, Labor, and the Shaping of America’s Public-Private Welfare State (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 2003).
2. Jean Mayer, “National and International Issues in Food Policy,” Lowell Lecture, Harvard University, May 15, 1979, www.dcc.harvard.edu/pubs/lowell/jmayer.html, 3.
3. See Jean Mayer, “White House Conference on Food, Nutrition, and Health,” Journal ofthe American Dietetic Association 55 no. 6 (December 1969) 553–56.
4. White House Conference on Food, Nutrition, and Health: Final Report (Washington, D.C., 1969), 237.
5. Ibid., 216.
6. See Robert D. McFadden, “Jean Mayer, 72, Nutritionist Who Led Tufts, Dies,” New York Times (hereafter, NYT), January 2, 1993.
7. United States Congress, Senate Select Committee on Nutrition and Human Needs, 90th Cong., 2nd Sess., 1968 (hereafter, Senate Select Committee) Part 1 p. 14.
8. Kenneth Schlossberg, “Nutrition and Government Policy in the United States,” in Beverley Winikoff, ed., Nutrition and National Policy (Cambridge MIT Press, 1978), 331.
9. “U.S. Increases Pupil Lunch Aid,” NYT, October 7, 1971.
10. David Orden, Robert Paarlberg, and Terry Roe, Policy Reform in American Agriculture: Analysis and Prognosis (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1999), 71. The authors argue that this shift reflected a decline in political clout of rural districts, whose representation fell from 83% of the House of Representatives in 1966 to 60% in 1973. (80).
11. Adam Sheingate, The Rise of the Agricultural Welfare State: Institutions and Interest Groups in the United States, France, and Japan (Princeton, N.J.: Princeton University Press, 2001), 148.
12. White House Conference: Final Report, 247. According to one estimate, during the 1970s the USDA increased its expenditures on nutrition from 11% of the budget in 1970 to 40% in 1980. This happened as the department decreased its expenditures on farm subsidies. Adam D. Sheingate, The Rise of the Agricultural Welfare State, 148.
13. In 1969 the Department of Agriculture created a new Food and Nutrition Service to oversee these key programs.
14. “President, at Food Parley
, Pledges Fight on Hunger,” NYT, December 3 1969.
15. “Food Aid Officials Hampered by Law,” NYT, December 26, 1970; “House Orders Nixon Aides Not to Cut Pupil Lunches,” NYT, October 19,1971; and “Pupil Lunch Bill Is Sent to Nixon,” NYT, October 21, 1971.
16. See Maurice MacDonald, Food Stamps, and Income Maintenance (New York: Academic Press, 1977), 7–12.
17. Sheldon Danziger, “Welfare Reform Policy from Nixon to Clinton: What Role for Social Science?” paper prepared for Conference, “The Social Sciences and Policy Making,” Institute for Social Research, University of Michigan, March 13–14, 1998.
18. “Position of the American School Food Service Association on the Proposed Repeal of Existing Child Nutrition Legislation,” n.d. (October 4, 1975), Washington, D.C., Office, Box 285, Children—Nutrition, 1975–76, National Council of Jewish Women (NCJW) Papers, Library of Congress. The NAFSA also feared the cuts would eliminate 120,000 of the 350,000 school food-service jobs in the country.
19. “History of NSLP.” Http://USDA.gov; and United States Congress, House General Subcommittee on Education and Labor, Hearings to Establish a Program of Nutrition Education, 93rd Cong., 1st Sess., March and July 1973, (hereafter, House Subcommittee on Education, 1973), p. 143.
20. See Gilbert Y. Steiner, The Children’s Cause (Washington, D.C.: Brookings Institution, 1976), 176.
21. Committee on School Lunch Participation, Their Daily Bread: A Study of the National School Lunch Program (Atlanta: McNelley-Rudd, 1968), 120.
22. T. W. Martz to Richard Russell, October 23,1969, Richard Russell Papers, Series IX:B, Box 7, Folder, School Lunch Program, January 1969–November 1969, Athens, Georgia.
23. Steiner, The Children’s Cause, 198; Ardith Maney, Still Hungry after All These Years: Food Assistance Policy from Kennedy to Reagan (New York: Greenwood Press, 1989), 124; Schlossberg, “Nutrition and Government Policy,” 343, and “Child Nutrition Programs: Issues for the 101th Congress,” School Food Service Research Review, (Spring, 1989) 7.
24. The School Breakfast program began on a small scale in 1966 but served 1.75 million children by 1974. See Steiner, The Children’s Cause, 204. Also, Center on Budget and Policy Analysis, “Falling Behind: A Report on How Blacks Have Fared under Reagan,” Journal of Black Studies 17, no. 2 (December 1986) 148–72.
School Lunch Politics Page 34
