by Sudhir Kakar
28. Cited in Javed Alam, Tradition in India under Interpreted Stress: Integrating its Claims’, Theses Eleven, 39, 1994.
Chapter Three
1. Dieter Beckman, E. Brahler, and H E. Richter, Der Giessen Test, 4th ed. (Bern: Verlag Hans Huber, 1991).
2. Samuel J. Klausner, ‘Violence’, in Mircea Eliade, ed., The Encyclopedia of Religion 15, 268-71.
3. Joseph S. Alter, The Wrestler‘s Body: Identity and Ideology in North India (Berkeley and Los Angeles: University of California Press, 1992). Much of the information on the wrestler’s physical regimen and ethical attitudes is derived from this excellent study.
4. J.S. Alter, ‘The Sanyasi and the Indian Wrestler: The Anatomy of a Relationship’, American Ethnologist 16, no. 2 (1992), 317-36.
5. Ibid., 326.
6. K.P. Singh, ‘Swasth Vibhagon par Kharch Bar Raha Hai, aur Nai Nai Bimariyan bhi Bar Rahi hain’, Bhartiya Kushti 17 (1980), 21; cited in J.S. Alter, ‘The Body of One Colour: Indian Westling, the Indian State, and Utopian Somatics’, Cultural Anthropology, no. 1 (1993), 64.
7. For an elaboration of this viewpoint, see R. Giadston, ‘The Longest Pleasure: A Psychoanalytic Study of Hatred’, International Journal of Psychoanalysis 68 (1987), 371-78.
Chapter 4
1. M.N. Srinivas, Social Change in Modern India (Berkeley and Los Angeles: University of California Press, 1966).
2. Napoleon Chagnon, Yanomamo: The Fierce People (Fort Worth: Harcourt Brace, 1983).
3. Sudhir Kakar, The Inner World: A Psychoanalytic Study of Childhood and Society in India (Delhi: Oxford Univesity Press, 1978), chap. 3.
4. Christopher Bollas, ‘Generational Consciousness’, in Being a Character: Psychoanalysis and Self Experience (New York: Hill and Wang, 1992).
5. For a comprehensive discussion of the theory and its problems, see Thomas F. Pettigrew, ‘The Intergroup Hypothesis Reconsidered’, in M. Hewston and R. Brown, eds, Contact and Conflict in Intergroup Encounters (Oxford: Basil Blackwell, 1986), 169-95.
6. David Lowenthal, ‘The Timeless Past: Some Anglo-American Historical Preconception’, Jo umal of American History 75 (1989), 1263-280.
7. Dube, 187.
8. Dubois, 218.
9. Owen Berkeley-Hill, ‘Hindu-Muslim Unity’, in International Journal of Psychoanalysis 6 (1925), 287.
10. Ibid., 287.
11. Sudhir Kakar, Shamans, Mystics and Doctors (New York: A. Knopf, 1982), chap. 3.
12. Robert A. LeVine and Donald T. Campbell, Ethnocentrism: Theories of Conflict, Ethnic Attitudes and Group Behaviour (New York: John Wiley, 1972).
13. See A. Majeed and E.S.K. Ghosh, ‘A Study of Social Identity in Three Ethnic Groups in India,’ International Journal of Psychology 17 (1982), 455-63.
14. Erik Erikson, ‘Womanhood and Inner Space’ in Identity: Youth and Crisis.
15. The relevant studies are: A. Sharma and S. Anandlakshmy, ‘Prejudice in the Making: Understanding the Role of Socialization’, in D. Sinha, ed., Socialization of the Indian Child (New Delhi: Concept, 1981), 101. A.K. Singh, ‘Development of Religious Identity and Prejudice in Indian Children’, in A. deSouza, ed., Children in India (New Delhi: Manohar, 1979), 231-44. Other studies have shown a significant correlation between the parents’ prejudice and that of children, with female children tending to be more influenced by the mother’s prejudices, and the fathers of prejudiced boys being significantly more authoritarian: See M.K. Hasan, ‘Childrearing Attitudes and Some Personality Traits of the Parents of Prejudiced School Children’, Manas 24, no. 3 (1977), 1-10, and ‘Parental Influence on Children’s Prejudice’, Social Change 13, no. 2 (1983), 40-46. For an overview of similar studies from all over the world in the case of ethnic groups, see Nimmi Hutnick, Ethnic Minority identity, (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1991).
16. Luce Irigaray, Je, Tu, Nous, Pour Une Culture de la Difference (Paris: Biblio-Poche, 1994).
Chapter Five
1. Anees, Jung, Night of the New Moon: Encounters with Muslim Women in India (Delhi: Penguin, 1993), 59.
2. Rollo May, Power and Inocence (New York: Dell, 1972), 29.
3. Bernard Lewis, The Political Language of Islam (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1988), 4.
4. R.D. Meade and L. Singh, ‘Changes in Social Distance during Warfare: A Study of India/Pakistan war of 1971’, Journal of Social Psychology 90, no. 2(1973), 325-26.
5. For an interesting description of the behaviour of various kinds of victims, see R.A. Ball, ‘The Victimological Cycle’, Victimology 1, no. 3 (1976), 379-95.
6. Mushirul Hasan, ‘Minority Identity and Its Discontents: Responses and Representations’, paper read at International Congress of Asian Studies, Hong Kong, August, 1993.
7. Akbar S. Ahmed, Discovering Islam (New York: Vistaar Publications, 1990), 158-60. See also Imtiaz Ahmed, ed., Modernization and Social Change among Muslims (Delhi: Manoha, 1983).
8. Gilani Bano, Aiwan-e-ghazal (Hyderabad, 1976).
9. See R.A. Shweder, M. Mahapatra and J.G. Miller, ‘Culture and Moral Development’, in J. Kagan and S. Lamb, eds., The Emergence of Moral Concepts in Early Childhood (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1987);R.A. Shweder, ‘Beyond Self-constructed Knowledge: The Study of Culture and Morality’, in Merril-Palmer Quarterly 28 (1982), 41-69; R.A. Shweder and N.C. Much, ‘Determinants of Meaning: Discourse and Moral Socialization’, in R.A. Shweder, Thinking through Cultures (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1991).
10. R. Dworkin, Taking Rights Seriously (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1991).
11. E. Fromm, Psychoanalysis and Religious (New Haven, Conn.: Yale University Press, 1950); G. Obeyesekere, Medusa’s Hair (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1981).
12. Kakar, The Inner World, 37.
13. A.K. Ramanujan, ‘Is There an Indian Way of Thinking?’ in M. Marriott, ed., Indian through Hindu Categories (Delhi: Sage Publications, 1990).
14. For an elaboration on the uses of empathy see Rafael Moses, ‘Empathy and Disempathy in the Political Process’, Political Psychology 5 (1985), 135-40.
Chapter 6
1. Kakar, The Inner World.
2. Anthony Smith, The Ethnic Origins of Nations (Oxford: Basil Blackwell, 1986).
3. For a similarity in the Islamic world, see Bassam Tibi, The Crisis of Modem Islam (Salt Lake City: Utah University Press, 1988).
4. For brief biographies of the first and second RSS ‘supremos’, see Walter V. Andresen and S. Damle, The Brotherhood in Saffron (Delhi: Vistaar Publications, 1987).
5. The social-psychological effects of modernization have been discussed in E. James Anthony and C. Chiland, eds., The Child in His Family: Children and Their Parents in a Changing World (New York: John Wiley, 1978).
6. Quoted from a sangh parivar journal in an article, ‘Women of Saffron’, in The Times of India, February 1993.
7. See Tu Wei-Ming, ‘Beyond the Enlightenment Mentality’, unpublished paper given at the Second International Conference of Global History at Technical University, Darmstadt, Germany (July 1992), 4.
8. Erik H. Erikson, Insight and Responsibility (New York: W.W. Norton, 1964).
9. Sigmund Freud, ‘Group Psychology and the Analysis of the Ego’ (1921), Standard Edition, vol. 18.
10. Ernest Wolf, Treating the Self (New York: Guilford Press, 1988), 48.
11. Asghar Ali Engineer, ed., Communal Riots in Post-Independence India, (New Delhi: Sangam Books, 1985), 238-71.
12. Paul Brass, Ethnicity and Nationalism (New Delhi: Sage Publications, 1991), 15.
13. See Peter Homans, The Ability to Mourn (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1991), 309.
14. The clearest description of the concept of complementarity is by Klaus Meyer-Habich; see his ‘Komplementariat’, in J. Ritter and K. Gruender, eds. Historiches Wörterbuch der Philosophie (Basel: Schwaber, 1967), 4, 933-34.
15. Don Miller, The Reason of Metaphor (Delhi: Sage Publications, 1991), 169.
16. For Rithambra’s biographical d
etails, see ‘Virtuous Virago’, The Times of India, 19 July 1991 and ‘Hindutva by the Blood of Her Words’, The Daily, 9 June 1991.
17. On the poetic function of rhetoric, see John Shotter, ‘The Social construction of Remembering and Forgetting’, in D. Middleton and D. Edwards, eds., Collective Remembering (London: Sage, 1990), 124.
18. Homans, 277.
19. Rafael Moses, ‘The Group Self and the Arab-Israeli Conflict’, International Review of Psychoanalysis 9 (1982), 56.
20. Sudhir Kakar, Shamans, Mystics and Doctors (New York: A. Knopf, 1982), chap. 3.
21. Moses, ‘The Group Self, 63.
22. Emile Durkheim, The Elementary Forms of Religious Life (1912) (New York: Free Press, 1965).
Chapter Seven
1. See Martin E. Marty and R. Scott Appleby, eds., Fundamentalisms and the State, vol. 3 of The Fundamentalism Project (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1993), 3. For a review of scholarly discussion of and unhappiness with such terms as ‘fundamentalism’ and ‘revivalism’, see Sadik J. Al-Azm, ‘Islamic Fundamentalism Reconsidered: A Critical Outline of Problems, Ideas and Approaches, Part 1 ’, South Asia Bulletin 12 (1993), 93-121.
2. M.S. Agwani, Islamic Fundamentalism in India (Chandigarh: Twenty-first Century India Society, 1986). See also M. Ahmad, ‘Islamic Fundamentalism in South Asia: The Jamaat-i-Islami and the Tablighi Jamaat’, in M. Marty and R. Scott Appleby, eds., Fundamentalism Observed (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1991), 457-530.
3. For a discussion of a community or a nation’s inability to mourn—in this case Germany after the Second World War—see A. Mitscherlich and M. Mitscherlich, Die Unfähigkeit zu Trauern (Munich: Piper Verlag, 1968). See also V. Volkan, The Need to Have Enemies and Allies: From Clinical Practice to International Relationships (Northvale, N.J.: Jason Aronson, 1988).
4. For a psychopathological treatment of fanaticism, see A. Haynal, ed., Fanaticism: A Historical and Psychoanalytical Study (NewYork: Schocken Booms, 1983).
5. Lewis, The Political Language of Islam, 7.
6. Marty and Appleby, Fundamentalisms and the State, 631.
7. Meira Likierman, ‘The Function of Anger in Human Conflict’, International Review of Psychoanalysis 14, no. 2 (1987): 143-62.
8. For a fuller discussion of competition between ethnic groups, see V.D. Volkan, D.A. Julius, and J.V. Montville, The Psychodynamics of International Relationships (Lexington, Ky.: Lexington Books, 1990).
Chapter Eight
1. Andrew Samuels, The Political Psyche (London: Routledge, Kegan and Paul, 1993), 11-12.
2. See Phillipe Wolff, ‘The 1391 Pogrom in Spain. Social Crisis or Not?’ Past and Present 50 (1971), 4-18; George Rude, The Crowd in History: A Study of Popular Disturbances in France and England, 1848 (New York: 1964); Janine Estebe, Tocsin pour un massacre (Paris, 1968). For the ‘clash of economic interests’ theory of religious-ethnic conflicts in South Asia see Veena Das (ed.) Mirrors of Violence (Delhi: Oxford University Press, 1990).
3. Michael Walzer, ‘Nations and Minorities’, in C. Freud, ed. Minorities: Community and Identity (Berlin: Springer Verlag, 1982), 219-27.
4. The leading proponent of the theory that the international environment, especially the ending of colonial rule, is responsible for ethnic conflict is D. Horowitz; see his Ethnic Groups in Conflict (Berkeley and Los Angeles: University of California Press, 1985).
5. Sigmund Freud, ‘Group Psychology and the Analysis of the Ego’ (1921), Standard Edition, vol. 18.
6. Erikson, Identity: Youth and Crisis, 46. See also Janine Puget, ‘The Social Context: Searching for a Hypothesis’, Free Associations 2, no. 1 (1991).
7. Davis, 156-60.
8. D.W. Winnicott, ‘Communicating and Not Communicating Leading to a Study of Certain Opposites,’ in his The Maturational Process and the Facilitating Environment (New York. International Universities Press, 1963), 187. For a succinct discussion of contemporary psychoanalytic thinking on self and relatedness, see Alice R. Soref, ‘The Self, in and out of Relatedness’, The Annual of Psychoanalysis, vol. 20 (1992), 25-48.
9. Oscar Patterson, ‘The Nature, Causes and Implications of Ethnic Identification’, in Fried, 25-50.
10. David Rapoport, ‘Comparing Militant Fundamentalist Movements’, in Marty and Appleby, Fundamentalism Observed, op. cit., 443.
11. Sigmund Freud ‘New Introductory Lectures’ (1993), Standard Edition 22, 104.
12. See Heinrich von Stietencom, ‘Angst und Gewalt: Ihre Funktionen und ihre Bewältigung in den Religionen’, in Stietencom Ihrg.) Angst und Gewalt: Ihre Praesenz und Ihre bewaltigung in den Religionen (Dusseldorf: Patmos Verlag, 1979), 311-37.
13. John W. Bowker, ‘The Burning Fuse: The Unacceptable Face of Religion’, Zygon 21, no. 4 (1986), 415-38; see also Elise Boulding, ‘Two Cultures of Religion as Obstacles to Peace’, Zygon 21, no. 4 (1986), 501-18.
14. Rapoport, op. cit.
15. Davis, 165.
16. Hans Bertram, ‘Germany—One Country with Two Youth Generations?’ paper presented at the Seminar on Childhood and Adolescence, Goethe Institut, Colombo, Sri Lanka, 17-21 February 1994.
17. Cited in Kanan Makiya, ‘From Cruelty to Toleration’, unpublished paper read at the conference on Religion and Politics Today, organized by the Rajiv Gandhi Foundation, New Delhi, January 30-February 2 1994.
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