Roosevelt to Mary Norton, June 1. l942: PL, p. 1328. Bennett candidacy in New York: Roosevelt to Flynn, Aug. 14, l942, PSF, N.Y. State, Political Folder; see also Hassett, pp. 104-106. Roosevelt and Hamilton Fish: Hassett, pp. 86, 94. Norris candidacy: PPA, l942, p. 433; Roosevelt’s earlier endorsement, Oct. 10, l936: PPA, l936, pp. 431-432; see, generally, Norris Papers, LC. Roosevelt to Norris, Oct. 22, 1942: PL, p. 1357. Willkie trip: Willkie to Roosevelt, Sept. 10, 1942, PSF, Willkie; Clapper Papers, Oct. 30, 1942, Cont. 23, LC. Roosevelt on “typewriter strategists”: PC 849, Oct. 6, 1942; Barnard, pp. 361, 375-377. Cantril data: Cantril Notebook I, pp. 12, 14, 30-32; Cantril to Anna Rosenberg, July 24, Aug. 3, Aug. 17, Sept. 1, 1942, ibid. General election situation: Kenneth Crawford, in PM, Oct. 5, 1942, p. 3; Clapper interview of Hull, Nov. 23, 1942, Clapper Papers, LC. Election Day at Hyde Park: Hassett, p. 133. Norris’s reaction to his defeat: The Nation, Nov. 14, 1942, p. 497.
CHAPTER NINE
Roosevelt to King George, Oct. 17, 1942: PL, p. 1354. Stalingrad: Werth, Pt. V; Zhukov, chaps. 9-10; Clark, chaps. 11-12. Stalin on Oct. 1942 as low point: Werth, p. 484. Willkie in Moscow: Werth, p. 485; Davies Papers, Box 12, LC. Guadalcanal: S. E. Morison, The Struggle for Guadalcanal (Boston: Little, Brown, 1949); John Miller, Jr., Guadalcanal: The First Offensive (Washington, D.C.: Office of the Chief of Military History, 1949). For estimates of the situation by naval authorities in Washington during the battle: Clapper Papers, Nov. 6, 1942 (Adm. King); Nov. to, 1942 (Adms. Ghormley and Home), LC. Roosevelt on low point of Guadalcanal operation: Roosevelt to Queen Wilhelmina, Oct. 17, 1942, PL, p. 1355; Roosevelt to Churchill, Oct. 19, 1942, PL, p. 1356. MacArthur’s warning: MacArthur to Marshall, Oct. 17, 1942, PMRP, Box 17. Roosevelt to Joint Chiefs on reinforcing Guadalcanal: Roosevelt to Leahy, King, Marshall, and Arnold, Oct, 24, 1942, PMRP, Box 17. Roosevelt to Stalin on situation in Solomon Islands: Sherwood, p. 658, and, in paraphrased form, Correspondence2, p. 40.
Thrust Across the Atlantic. The history of the political-military invasion of North Africa has been well served by historians and participants. General background and significance: William L. Langer, Our Vichy Gamble (Knopf, 1947); Robert Aron, Histoire de Vichy (Paris: Librairie Arthème Fayard, 1954); Geoffrey Warner, Pierre Laval and the Eclipse of France (Macmillan, 1969); Paul Farmer, Vichy Political Dilemma (Columbia University Press, 1955); Kolko, pp. 64-67; Maisky, pp. 278-289; Woodward, chap. 10. Military operations: I. S. O. Playfair and C. J. C. Molony, The Mediterranean and Middle East, Vol. IV, The Destruction of the Axis Forces in Africa (London: His Majesty’s Stationery Office, 1966); Howe; Morison2. Participants’ reports: Macmillan; Robert Murphy, Diplomat Among Warriors (Doubleday, 1964); de Gaulle, chaps. 1-3; Eisenhower; Mark W. Clark, Calculated Risk (Harper, 1950); Harry C. Butcher, My Three Years with Eisenhower (Simon and Schuster, 1946). On de Gaulle and North Africa, see also Viorst. Strategic aspects of invasion: Fuller, pp. 240-243. On United States relations with Vichy, see Roosevelt-William D. Leahy correspondence, ABCD File, FDRL. For a detailed estimate of the Vichy situation by Leahy, see Leahy to Roosevelt, Nov. 22, 1941, ABCD File, FDRL. See, generally, Davies Papers, Nov. 2-15, 1942 Folder, Box 12, LC.
Misgivings about the North African enterprise: Marshall to Leahy and King, 8/17/42, WDCSA/381 Torch, AR; Arnold to Hopkins, Sept. 3, 1942, Arnold Papers, Box 43, LC; Matloff, pp. 236-239, 290; Bryant1, pp. 403-406; OCS 21384-3, AR; Stimson Diary, Box 39; Stimson and Bundy, p. 426. Repercussions of TORCH on other theaters: Pogue1, p. 410; Bryant2, p. 407. Stalin’s doubts on political aspects: Sherwood, p. 618. Murphy’s military knowledge: Murphy, p. 103. Eisenhower’s political grasp: Eisenhower, pp. 100, 109. Background of planning: OCS 21384-3, AR. Churchill-Roosevelt exchange in the planning of TORCH: Churchill4, pp. 530-543; Bryant2, pp. 398-403. Key quotes have been taken from the full messages. Measuring opinion in Africa: Hadley Cantril, “Evaluating the Probable Reactions to the Landing in North Africa in 1942: A Case Study,” Public Opinion Quarterly, Fall 1965, pp. 400-410. Roosevelt to Marshall on timing of invasion: Pogue1, p. 402. Roosevelt’s instruction to Murphy: Murphy, pp. 102, 106. Murphy’s relations with French leaders: Murphy, p. 118. French African political situation: McNeill, pp. 203-209. Anxieties on the eve of invasion: Stimson Diary; Pogue1, pp. 398, 416; Langer, p. 354. Eisenhower’s earlier discouragement: Eisenhower to Marshall, Oct. 10, 1942, 381 Torch, AR. Early’s remark: conference with Marshall, Nov. 15, 1942, Clapper Papers, LC. Roosevelt’s reception of the news of the landing: Tully, p. 264.
To Walk with the Devil. Reflections on the “luck” of the African enterprise, by an old military observer: J. C. Smuts (writing from Chequers) to Roosevelt, Nov. 15, 1942, PSF, Union of South Africa. Roosevelt’s letter to troops: copy in PSF, War Department File. Roosevelt’s broadcast in French: Butcher, p. 174; PPA, 1942, pp. 451-452; Morison2, p. 71; see also Frankfurter to Roosevelt, April 16, 1942, Freedman, p. 656. Exchange of messages between Roosevelt and Pétain: PPA, 1942, pp. 455-457; see also Leahy to Welles, Nov. 5, 1942, 740.001 EW 1939/25712, SD; Warner, chap. 10. Casablanca “fire-away Flannagan”: Morison2, p. 91. Generally, on the landings, see Morison2 and Howe. Roosevelt’s “promise” to Giraud: McNeill, pp. 205, 246-247, and sources cited therein. The American military and politics: Butcher, p. 165; Mark Clark, pp. 107, 121, 133, 138. Darlan’s situation: Clark, pp. 109-110, has part of the transcript of the Clark-Darlan exchange. Roosevelt to Churchill on Giraud and Darlan, Nov. 11, 1942: 740.0011 EW 1939, SD. See, generally, volumes cited in notes for previous section of this chapter. Marshall’s and Eisenhower’s defense of Darlan dealing: conference with Marshall, Nov. 15, 1942, Clapper Papers, LC.
Freda Kirchwey quotation: The Nation, Nov. 21, 1942, pp. 529-530; ibid., Nov. 28, 1942, pp. 559-560. Churchill to Eden on de Gaulle: Eden, pp. 350-351; see also Nicolson, pp. 262-267. Stimson and the liberals: Stimson Diary, Nov. 16, 1942, Box 41; Blum2, pp. 148-150; Freedman, p. 681. Stimson’s call to Willkie: Stimson, ibid.; Barnard, pp. 391-394. De Gaulle and the Darlan deal: Viorst, p. 124. Churchill and North African politics: Churchill4, pp. 639-640. Roosevelt’s military calculations: Langer, pp. 359-360; Sherwood, p. 651. Military losses in invasion: Howe, p. 173. Churchill on the critics: Churchill4, p. 641. Military advice to Roosevelt to deal with Darlan: Marshall to Roosevelt, n.d.; Marshall to Roosevelt, Nov. 26, 1942, both in 381 Torch, AR. Morgenthau’s complaint to Roosevelt: Blum2, pp. 150-151. Roosevelt on walking with the Devil: he quoted the saying slightly differently each time; I have used his comment to the press conference, Nov. 17, 1942, PPA, 1942, p. 479. Stalin and his proverb: Sherwood, p. 651. A later critique both of the dealings with Vichy in North Africa and of Langer’s treatment of them: Louis Gottschalk, “Our Vichy Fumble,” Journal of Modern History, March 1948, pp. 47-56. Later military developments, North Africa: Howe.
Roosevelt: A Turning Point? Hassett on Roosevelt: Hassett, p. 145. Roosevelt on the “Star-Spangled Banner” without frills: Roosevelt to Capt. John L. McCrea, Aug. 31, 1942, PL, p. 1343. Roosevelt on second helps: Roosevelt to Eleanor Roosevelt, Oct. 7, 1942, PL, p. 1352. Roosevelt and King: King and Whitehill, p. 412. Hyde Park diaries: Roosevelt to Mrs. Theodore Douglas Robinson, Nov. 19, 1942, PL, pp. 1368-1369. Dining with Ickes: Roosevelt to Ickes, Dec. 4, 1942, PL, p. 1376. Coffeeless breakfasts: Roosevelt to Fred Allen, Dec. 28, 1942, PPF 8275. Roosevelt’s French: Grace Tully to Herbert Bayard Swope, Dec. 1, 1942, PL, pp. 1374-1375 (the memorandum was obviously written by Roosevelt himself). Eleanor Roosevelt’s planned trip to Great Britain: Roosevelt to Eleanor Roosevelt, Oct. 16, 1942, PL, pp. 1353-1355. Roosevelt at Thanksgiving service: Lilienthal, pp. 562-563. Roosevelt on the second front: Roosevelt to Josephus Daniels, Nov. 10, 1942, PL, pp. 1362-1363. George Fielding Eliot on Roosevelt as strategist: Time, Dec. 7, 1942, p. 21. Lilienthal at the White House: Lilienthal, pp. 566, 570-572. New Year’s Eve gathering: Sherwood, p. 665; Rosenman, p. 365.
CHAPTER TEN
Roosevelt on telling off Congress: Lilienthal, p. 571. Preparing message to Congress: Rosenman, p. 366. Public opinio
n favoring conciliation: Cantril Notebook I, pp. 90-96. The address, Jan. 7, 1943: PPA, 1943, pp. 21-34. Roosevelt and Clare Boothe Luce: PL, pp. 1390-1391. Roosevelt to McCormack, n.d.: PL, p. 1389. Roosevelt and Henry Luce: Roosevelt to Welles, Dec. 28, 1942, 811.917 Time/128, SD.
The Gaming Board of Strategy. Quotation from President’s 1943 message to Congress, Jan. 7, 1943: PPA, 1943, p. 22. Hitler on leaving the Volga: quoted in Shirer, p. 1210. On Hitler’s strategic situation: Higgins; Warlimont; Trevor-Roper; Shirer. Atlantic sinkings: Roosevelt to Marshall and to King, March 18, 1943, PMRP, Naval Aide’s File, Box 31. Stalin to Churchill on suspension of convoys: Correspondence1, p. 72. Stalin’s public questioning of second-front absence: Stalin, pp. 61, 64; Werth, p. 491. Stalin on war progress in Africa: Correspondence1, p. 75; Werth, p. 491. Stalin on “basic blows”: quoted in Higgins, p. 149, from Raymond Garthoff, Soviet Military Doctrine (Glencoe, 111.: The Free Press, 1953), p. 130. Brooke on Stalin as strategist: Bryan2, pp. 460-465; see also Churchill4, p. 582. Churchill on plans for after Africa: Churchill4, pp. 649-650. Churchill on Europe: Churchill4, p. 562.
Roosevelt’s lack of strategic commitment: Roosevelt to Churchill, Nov. 11, 1942, 740.0011 EW 1939/25495 1/3 CF, SD. Churchill’s awareness that TORCH precluded ROUNDUP in 1943: Churchill4, pp. 648, 656. (I am using ROUNDUP here to include the build-up—BOLERO—as well as the actual cross-channel attack.) Issue of Allied planes for Caucasus: Correspondence2, pp. 36 (Roosevelt to Stalin, Oct. 9, 1942), 44 (Roosevelt to Stalin, Dec. 16, 1942), 45 (Stalin to Roosevelt, Dec. 18, 1942); see also Matloff, pp. 329-346. Actual, compared with planned, distribution of American military strength, end of 1942: Matloff, pp. 357-360; see also Maisky, pp. 352-353. Planning for Big Three or Big Two conference: Churchill4, pp. 662-665 (Roosevelt to Churchill, Nov. 26, 1942; Churchill to Roosevelt, Nov. 26, 1942; Roosevelt to Churchill, Dec. 3, 1942; Churchill to Roosevelt, Dec. 3, 1942); Correspondence2, pp. 42-45 (Roosevelt to Stalin, Dec. 2, 1942; Stalin to Roosevelt, Dec. 6, 1942; Roosevelt to Stalin, Dec. 8, 1942; Stalin to Roosevelt, Dec. 14, 1942). Churchill and second front: Maisky, pp. 351-353. Preparations for Casablanca Conference: Stimson Diary, Jan. 7, 1943; Churchill4, p. 671; Matloff, pp. 376, 379-380. On specific aspects of cross-channel, see Harrison, pp. 32-38. Roosevelt’s continued indecision: Sherwood, p. 671; Churchill4, p. 664; Matloff, p. 363.
Toward the Underbelly? Roosevelt’s trip to Casablanca: Sherwood, pp. 671-674; Roosevelt to Eleanor Roosevelt, Jan. 13, 1943, PL, p. 1393; Elliott Roosevelt, p. 75; Reilly, chap. 14. Roosevelt at Casablanca: Elliott Roosevelt, p. 66; PL, pp. 1393-1394; Reilly, pp. 149-151; and works cited below. Military conferences at Casablanca: Matloff, pp. 19-36; King and Whitehall, pp. 416-417; Bryant2, p. 446. Churchill’s instructions to the British military chiefs: Bryant2, p. 445. Roosevelt-Churchill conferences: Sherwood, pp. 674-675; Churchill4, p. 676; Eisenhower, p. 163; Bryant2, pp. 454, 458-459 Eisenhower’s appointment: Sherwood, pp. 677-678; Bryant2, pp. 454-455; Ismay, pp. 288-289.
French politics and personalities at Casablanca: Sherwood, pp. 675-686; Churchill4, pp. 680-682; Macmillan, pp. 255-256; de Gaulle, chap. 3; Eden, p. 363. Roosevelt’s conference with de Gaulle: Reilly, pp. 157-158; Sherwood, p. 685. Roosevelt’s and Churchill’s personal feeling about de Gaulle: Churchill4, p. 682. Roosevelt and Giraud’s documents: Arthur Layton Funk, “The ‘Anfa’ Memorandum: An Incident of the Casablanca Conference,” Journal of Modern History, No. 3, September 1954, pp. 246-254, and documents cited therein; see also Macmillan, pp. 256-260; Stimson Diary, Feb. 3, 1943. Roosevelt’s seeming lightheartedness at Casablanca: Macmillan, p. 259; Murphy, p. 165; Eisenhower, p. 161; Elliott Roosevelt, chap. 4; Stimson Diary, Feb. 3, 1943. President’s trip to Rabat: Elliott Roosevelt, pp. 105-107; PPA, 1943, pp. 45-47, 61-62; Reilly, p. 160; PPA, 1943, pp. 57-58. Roosevelt’s dinner party for the Sultan: Murphy, pp. 172-173; Macmillan, pp. 250-251; Elliott Roosevelt, pp. 109-112. “Reconciliation” of Giraud and de Gaulle: Macmillan, p. 253; Moran, p. 89; PPA, 1943, p. 84; Sherwood, pp. 693-694; these accounts differ in minor details. Announcement of unconditional surrender: PPA, 1943, p. 39; Sherwood, p. 696; Churchill4, pp. 686-687; see also Macmillan, pp. 263-264; Ismay, p. 290; cf. Deborin, pp. 296-297. Early staff work on unconditional surrender: Department of State, Postwar Foreign Policy Preparation, Dept. of State Publication 3580, General Foreign Policy Series 15, 1950, p. 127. Roosevelt’s and Churchill’s trip to Marrakesh: Churchill4, pp. 694-695; Moran, p. 90.
The First Kill. Roosevelt’s return trip to the United States: PC 876, Feb. 2, 1943; PPA, 1943, pp. 55-62; Roosevelt to Eleanor Roosevelt, Jan. 29, 1943, PL, p. 1395. Roosevelt-Churchill message to Stalin: Correspondence2, pp. 51-52 (message received Jan. 27, 1943). Stalin’s reception of message: Feis3, p. 114; William H. Standley and Arthur A. Ageton, Admiral Ambassador to Russia (Chicago: Regnery, 1955), p. 327. Further exchanges: Correspondence2, pp. 54-55, 55-56, 56-57. Battle of Tunisia: Howe, chaps. 20-24; Churchill4, p. 764. American defeat: Martin Blumenson, Kasserine Pass (Boston: Houghton Mifflin, 1967). Further Stalin-Roosevelt-Churchill exchanges: Correspondence1, pp. 99-102, 105-106; Correspondence2, pp. 58-59.
Roosevelt to Churchill on informing Stalin about suspension of convoys: Churchill4, pp. 752-753. Churchill to Stalin: Correspondence1, pp. 110-111. Stalin’s answer: Correspondence1, p. 112. Linking of Eighth Army and American troops: Churchill4, p. 771. Shift of II Corps north: Eisenhower, p. 177; Howe, Pt. 6. Churchill on results of Tunisia: Churchill4, p. 780; on “scrunch and punch”: Nicolson, p. 291. Hitler on his African strategy: quoted in Warlimont, p. 314. Stalin’s congratulations on Tunisia: Stalin to Churchill, April 12, 1943, Correspondence1, p. 117; Stalin to Roosevelt, May 8, 1943, Correspondence2, p. 64.
CHAPTER ELEVEN
William Allen White on Roosevelt: quoted from Emporia Gazette in Time, Feb. 22, 1943, p. 53; March 8, 1943, p. 12. Vandenberg on White House-Congress liaison: Vandenberg, p. 33.
Emergency Management. Establishment of Office for Emergency Management: PPA, 1940, pp. 624-625. War production: The United States at War, chaps. 5-7; Clapper Papers, Cont. 23, Dec. 31, 1942, LC; PPA, 1943, p. 26; Roosevelt to Beaverbrook, March 24, 1943, PL, p. 1416; Baruch to Roosevelt, PPF 88, May 10, 1943; see also Industrial Mobilization for War, pp. 604-608. Manpower: The United States at War, pp. 431-432; Harold Smith memoranda, Nov. 23, 1942, Dec. 4, 1942, and Roosevelt to Smith, Nov. 19, 1942, Smith Diary, FDRL; Hassett, p. 160. Labor developments: Roosevelt to Mackenzie King, Nov. 1, 1943, PL, p. 1462. John L. Lewis: Saul Alinsky, John L. Lewis (Putnam, 1949); James A. Wechsler, Labor Baron (Morrow, 1944). Roosevelt’s response: Byrnes, p. 180; Rosenman, p. 380; PPA, 1943, pp. 190-197; extensive material in OF 407-B, Box 29; see especially Ickes to Roosevelt, July 9, 1943, July 17, 1943; Roosevelt to Ickes, July 11, 1943; Biddle to Roosevelt, July 11, 1943. Attitudes of coal miners: Cantril to Lubin, “How the Miners Feel,” March 21, 1943; Cantril Notebook II. Byrnes’s birthday celebration: Byrnes, p. 181. Stars and Stripes editorial: Kirk to Hull, June 16, 1943, with text, OF 407-B. Drafting of miners: Roosevelt to Stimson et al., June 21, 1943, Stimson Diary; Roosevelt to Davis, Nov. 8, 1943, and earlier draft proposals by Byrnes, OF 407-B. Railroad labor troubles: OF 407-B and OF 4451; see, especially, Leiserson to Roosevelt, June 29, 1943, Oct. 13, 1943; Vinson to Roosevelt, July 5, 1943, Dec. 20, 1943; Byrnes to Roosevelt, Oct. 21, 1943; see also Byrnes, pp. 198-202. Marshall’s threat to resign: Byrnes, p. 201; his biographer, Forrest Pogue, is dubious about this report.
Senate subcommittee report on production: Senate Committee on Military Affairs, “Report of Subcommittee on War Mobilization,” 78th Congress, 1st Session, May 13, 1943. Baruch’s near-appointment: Baruch, pp. 314, 318; Byrnes, p. 174; Sherwood, p. 700; Rosenman to Roosevelt, May 24, 1943, PSF, Rosenman; Stimson Diary, Feb. 16, 1943, Feb. 22, 1943; Cox Diary, June 6, 1943, FDRL. Roosevelt’s veto of Bankhead bill, April 2, 1943: PPA, 1943, pp. 135-142; Byrnes, pp. 177-178. Jones-Wallace imbroglio: Byrnes, pp. 192-194; The United States at War, pp. 421-425; Smith to Roosevelt, Feb. 6, 1943, March 3, 1943,
Smith Diary, FDRL; Cox to Hopkins, July 12, 1943, Cox Diary, FDRL. For the Jones and Wallace views respectively: Timmons, chap. 28; Lord, pp. 496-514; PC 890, April 9, 1943. Roosevelt ban on public disputes: PPA, 1943, pp. 299-300. 1942 plea: White House statement, Aug. 20, 1942, 111.018/114 1/2, SD. Roosevelt on administrative rivalry as technique: Perkins, pp. 380-387. Roosevelt on conflicting recommendations: Smith to Roosevelt, Nov. 8, 1943, quoting Roosevelt memorandum of Sept. 14, 1942, Smith Diary, FDRL.
The Technology of Violence. This section was drafted by Douglas Rose and Stewart Burns in collaboration with the author. The warfare of machines: Baxter, p. 395. Patton on new weapons: Baxter, p. 236. Marshall on peacetime army: Marshall to Stimson, Stimson Papers, April 18, 1944. Hopkins as idea buffer: Washington Post “Parade Publications,” Oct. 31, 1943. Creation of NDRC: Baxter, pp. 14-16; Irvin Stewart, Organizing Scientific Research for War (Boston: Little, Brown, 1948), pp. 5-7. Civilian-military co-operation: Green, Thomson, and Roots, pp. 216-219, 226-232. Bush on incompatibility: Baxter, p. 12. Creation of OSRD: Baxter, pp. 124-135; Stewart, p. 36; Fulton to Roosevelt, July 1, 1941, PPF 7656; Hopkins to Roosevelt, Roosevelt to Coy, May 20, 1941; Coy to Roosevelt, June 13, 1941; Bush to Watson, July 10, 1941, OF 4482; Ickes to Roosevelt, Aug. 19, 1940, Feb. 7, 1941; Knudsen to Roosevelt, Feb. 18, 1941; Smith to Roosevelt, March 17, 1941; Ickes to Roosevelt, April 11, 1941, OF 2240. American-British scientific exchange: Baxter, pp. 119-123. OSRD operating methods: Stewart; Baxter, pp. 21, 129.
Bombing effectiveness: Stimson Diary, Dec. 13, 31, 1944; Stimson and Bundy, pp. 465-469. Reluctance to use the proximity fuse: Stimson Diary, Oct.-Nov.-Dec. 1944. Problems of weapons use: Green, Thomson, and Roots, pp. 512-515. Co-ordination of science and military: Baxter, pp. 28-32; Stewart, pp. 325-329. Stimson and radar: Stimson and Bundy, pp. 464-470; Baxter, pp. 136-157. Stewart on faith in instrument: Stewart, p. 328. Problems of man-instrument combination: Stewart, pp. 325-328; Green, Thomson, and Roots, pp. 515-517.
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