101. Reid, After the War, 422n., 279. For other examples of conflict between returning Confederate soldiers and black troops, see Charles E. Cauthen (ed.), Family Letters of the Three Wade Hamptons, 1782–1901 (Columbia, S.C., 1953), 129–30; Andrews, The South since the War, 28; New York Times, May 23, 26, 28, 1865.
102. D. E. H. Smith (ed.), Mason Smith Family Letters, 181; Ravenel, Private Journal, 245, 251; Emma E. Holmes, Ms. Diary, entry for March 31, 1865, Univ. of South Carolina; Petition of 18 Planters, Pineville, Charleston District, Sept. 1, 1865, Trenholm Papers, Univ. of North Carolina; 39 Cong., 1 Sess., Report of the Joint Committee on Reconstruction, Part II, 178; New York Times, Oct. 11, 1865; Evans, Ballots and Fence Rails, 79–80, 81; J. G. De Roulhac Hamilton, Reconstruction in North Carolina (New York, 1914), 158–61; Jack D. L. Holmes, “The Underlying Causes of the Memphis Race Riot of 1866,” Tennessee Historical Review, XVII (1958), 217.
103. Evans, Ballots and Fence Rails, 79n.; Charles W. Ramsdell, Reconstruction in Texas (New York, 1910), 130–31; Andrews, The South since the War, 221.
104. Ravenel, Private Journal, 245–46, 247, 251; Andrews, War-Time Journal of a Georgia Girl, 362–63; Rev. John Hamilton Cornish, Ms. Diary, entry for June 18, 1865, Univ. of North Carolina.
105. John W. Burbidge to Joseph Glover, July 28, 1865, Glover-North Papers, Univ. of South Carolina; E. M. Jenkins and other citizens to Bvt. Maj. Gen. R. K. Scott, June 13, 1866, with endorsement by Maj. J. E. Cornelius; Frederick Reed to Bvt. Maj. Gen. R. K. Scott, June 13, 1866, Records of the Assistant Commissioners, South Carolina (Lettere Received), Freedmen’s Bureau. See also Maj. George D. Reynolds to Lt. Stuart Eldridge, Oct. 5, 1865, Records of the Assistant Commissioners, Mississippi (Letters Received), Freedmen’s Bureau; 39 Cong., 1 Sess., Senate Exec. Doc. 27, Reports of the Assistant Commissioners of the Freedmen’s Bureau [1865–1866], 126.
106. Christian Recorder, Sept. 9, Oct. 21, 1865. For racial clashes among Union soldiers, see John C. Chavis to James Red-path [June 16, 1865], Univ. of South Carolina; New York Times, July 24, 1865, May 17, 1866; Williamson, After Slavery, 258; Evans, Ballots and Fence Rails, 63–64; Ravenel, Private Journal, 246; Dennett, The South As It Is, 193–94, 255.
107. Christian Recorder, Sept. 9, 1865; Evans, Ballots and Fence Rails, 65.
108. Christian Recorder, Sept. 9, 1865; Christian A. Fleetwood to Dr. James Hall, June 8, 1865, Carter G. Woodson Collection, Library of Congress.
109. Ravenel, Private Journal, 274, 288–89; Nevins, War for the Union: The Organized War to Victory, 1864–1865, 367; New York Times, Oct. 17, 1866.
110. Dennett, The South As It Is, 319; Christian Recorder, Dec. 2, 1865; D. E. H. Smith (ed.), Mason Smith Family Letters, 232–33; A. R. Salley to “My Dear Aunt,” Nov. 13, 1865, Bruce, Jones, Murchison Papers, Univ. of South Carolina.
111. Christian Recorder, Sept. 9, Aug. 19, 1865; A. H. Haines to President Andrew Johnson, Records of the Assistant Commissioners, South Carolina (Letters Received), Freedmen’s Bureau; Rawick (ed.), American Slave, XVIII: Unwritten History, 173. For assaults on discharged black soldiers, see New Orleans Tribune, July 26, 28, Aug. 31, 1865; New York Times, June 21, 1866; 39 Cong., 1 Sess., House Exec. Doc. 70, Freedmen’s Bureau, 203, 236, 237, 238; Senate Exec. Doc. 27, Reports of the Assistant Commissioners of the Freedmen’s Bureau [1865–1866], 6.
112. Rawick, (ed.), American Slave, XVIII: Unwritten History, 127; South Carolina Leader (Charleston), March 31, 1866. For black Union veterans who returned to the old plantations, see Rawick (ed.), American Slave, V: Texas Narr. (Part 3), 155; VII: Okla. Narr., 253; XVI: Kansas Narr., 9.
113. Reid, After the War, 558–62.
114. New Orleans Tribune, Aug. 31, 1865. “When de war ended, I goes back to my mastah and he treated me like his brother. Guess he wuz scared of me ’cause I had so much ammunition on me.” Rawick (ed.), American Slave, XVI: Va. Narr., 43.
115. Andrews, War-Time Journal of a Georgia Girl, 341–43.
116. Reid, After the War, 352.
117. Trowbridge, The South, 314; Dennett, The South As It Is, 194.
118. Andrews, The South since the War, 100; Trowbridge, The South, 429–30.
119. 39 Cong., 1 Sess., Report of the Joint Committee on Reconstruction, Part III, 146; House Exec. Doc. 70, Freedmen’s Bureau, 201–07. The reports of assaults and murders are voluminous, not all of them easily verifiable. See, e.g., 39 Cong., 1 Sess., Report of the Joint Committee on Reconstruction, Part III, 8–9, 146; House Exec. Doc. 70, Freedmen’s Bureau, 201–07, 236–38, 248–49; George L. Childs, Office of the Provost Court, Charlottesville, Va., Sept. 20, 1865, Brock Collection, Henry E. Huntington Library; Bvt. Col. A. E. Niles, Kingstree, S.C., to Bvt. Maj. Gen. R. K. Scott, Dec. 10, 1866, Records of the Assistant Commissioners, South Carolina (Letters Received), Freedmen’s Bureau; Letters from Anonymous (colored), Macon, Ga., April 13, 1866, Rebecca Lightfoot (freedwoman), Augusta, Ga., March 24, 1866, Freedmen’s Bureau, Georgia (Registers of Letters Received); Trowbridge, The South, 463, 581; Dennett, The South As It Is, 125–26, 195–96, 221–22; New Orleans Tribune, July 14, Aug. 3, 1865; New York Times, Oct. 22, 1865, Jan. 8, Feb. 12, 27, Oct. 31, 1866, Jan. 12, Feb. 4, Aug. 5, 22, 30, Dec. 26, 1867. For reports of whites committing rape on black women, see Loyal Georgian, Jan. 27, Oct. 13, 1866; 39 Cong., 1 Sess., House Exec. Doc. 70, Freedmen’s Bureau, 204, 207.
120. Dennett, The South As It Is, 110; Loyal Georgian, Oct. 13, 1866. For other expressions of concern by native whites, see R. W. Flournoy, New Albany, Miss., to Rep. Thaddeus Stevens, Nov. 20, 1865, Stevens Papers, Library of Congress; Trowbridge, The South, 499–500.
121. Trowbridge, The South, 314, 576; 39 Cong., 1 Sess., Report of the Joint Committee on Reconstruction, Part II, 127, Part III, 8; House Exec. Doc. 70, Freedmen’s Bureau, 248–49; Williamson, After Slavery, 97.
122. Christian Recorder, June 23, 1866; Albert, House of Bondage, 139–40. For examples of organized violence, see Lt. Col. H. R. Brinkerhoff, Clinton, Miss., to Maj. Gen. O. O. Howard, July 8, 1865, Records of the Assistant Commissioners, Mississippi (Letters Received), Freedmen’s Bureau; 39 Cong., 1 Sess., House Exec. Doc. 70, Freedmen’s Bureau, 201–06, 237–38; Report of the Joint Committee on Reconstruction, Part III, 146; Andrews, War-Time Journal of a Georgia Girl, 343; Andrews, The South since the War, 118, 220; Williamson, After Slavery, 97; Richardson, Negro in the Reconstruction of Florida, 164; New York Times, May 10, July 6, Aug. 29, 1866, Jan. 4, May 16, 1867.
123. Cornelia P. Spencer to Eliza North, March 10, 1866, in Chamberlain, Old Days in Chapel Hill, 131; Trowbridge, The South, 572; Moore (ed.), The Juhl Letters (July 22, 1865), 23.
124. Dennett, The South As It Is, 261; Loyal Georgian, Oct. 13, 1865; Trowbridge, The South, 499–500.
125. Swint (ed.), Dear Ones at Home, 165–69; Ravenel, Private Journal, 287–89; Williamson, After Slavery, 258–59; Taylor, Negro in the Reconstruction of Virginia, 83; New Orleans Tribune, May 10, 12, 14, 1867; New York Times, July 24, 1865, April 3, 17, May 3, June 26, July 25, Aug. 20, 1866.
126. 39 Cong., 1 Sess., House Report 101, Memphis Riots and Massacres (Washington, D.C., 1866); William S. McFeely, Yankee Stepfather: General O. O. Howard and the Freedmen (New Haven, 1968), 274–82; Holmes, “The Underlying Causes of the Memphis Race Riot of 1866,” 195–221; American Freedman, I (July 1866), 50–51; New York Times, May 3, 4, 7, 10, 11, 17, June 29, July 26, 1866; Taylor, Negro in Tennessee, 85–87.
127. 39 Cong., 2 Sess., House Report 16, New Orleans Riots (Washington, D.C., 1866); McFeely, Yankee Stepfather, 282–87; New York Times, July 29, 31, Aug. 1, 4, 5, 7, 8, 10, 11, 16, 17, 24, Oct. 14, 1866.
128. Dennett, The South As It Is, 150–51.
129. On March 22, 1865, the New Orleans Tribune concluded that during the last twenty years of slavery, colored residents had fared better before the courts than at the present time. For the legal system and slaves, see Stampp, The Peculiar Institution, 217–31.
130. New York Times, July 29, 1866; David Humphreys to
Bvt. Maj. Gen. Swayne, Nov. 25, 1865, Records of the Assistant Commissioners, Alabama (Letters Received), Freedmen’s Bureau; Coulter, “Slavery and Freedom in Athens, Georgia, 1860–66,” in Miller and Genovese (eds.), Plantation, Town, and County, 361.
131. New York Times, Oct. 28, 1866; Julius J. Fleming to Gen. Scott, Sept. 15, 1866, Records of the Assistant Commissioners, South Carolina (Letters Received), Freedmen’s Bureau.
132. De Forest, Union Officer in the Reconstruction, 1–14. For the varied record of the provost courts and the Freedmen’s Bureau in meting out equal justice, see Capt. George R. Hurlbut to Capt. George L. Childs, Sept. 30, 1865, and Col. Orlando Brown to Capt. Frank P. Crandon, Aug. 31, 1865, Brock Collection, Henry E. Huntington Library; Henry Crocheron et al. to Gen Swayne, Nov. 24, 1865, Records of the Assistant Commissioners, Alabama; Julius J. Fleming to Gen. Scott, Sept. 15, 1866, Records of the Assistant Commissioners, South Carolina; Bvt. Maj. Thomas H. Norton to Maj. A. W. Preston, Aug. 3, 1867, Records of the Assistant Commissioners, Mississippi (Letters Received), Freedmen’s Bureau; New Orleans Tribune, Aug. 14, 1865; Trowbridge, The South, 446; Dennett, The South As It Is, 223; William W. Rogers, Thomas County, 1865–1900 (Tallahassee, 1973), 407; Williamson, After Slavery, 327; Richardson, Negro in the Reconstruction of Florida, 41–42, 51–52; Martin Abbott, The Freedmen’s Bureau in South Carolina, 1865–1872 (Chapel Hill, N.C., 1967), 100–02; McFeely, Yankee Stepfather, 267–73; George R. Bentley, A History of the Freedmen’s Bureau (Philadelphia, 1955), 152–68.
133. William Daniel to John A. Needles, May 6, 1865, Pennsylvania Society for Promoting the Abolition of Slavery, Historical Society of Pennsylvania; John Baker to Maj. Gen. Thomas J. Woods, May 20, 1866, and Bvt. Maj. Thomas H. Norton to Maj. A. W. Preston, Aug. 3, 1867, Records of the Assistant Commissioners, Mississippi; Julius J. Fleming to Gen. Scott, Sept. 15, 1866, Records of the Assistant Commissioners, South Carolina (Letters Received), Freedmen’s Bureau; 39 Cong., 2 Sess., Senate Exec. Doc. 6, Reports of the Assistant Commissioners of Freedmen (Washington, D.C., 1867), 32, 60, 123; Freedmen’s Affairs in Kentucky and Tennessee, Report of Brevet Major General Carlin … (Washington, D.C., 1868), 30; Report of the Joint Committee on Reconstruction, Part III, 8; New Orleans Tribune, Nov. 29, 1865; Loyal Georgian, Feb, 24, 1866; New York Times, Sept. 26, 1866, April 14, 1867; Richardson, Negro in the Reconstruction of Florida, 40, 44–46, 47–48; Taylor, Negro in Tennessee, 41.
134. Trowbridge, The South, 435–36; Macrae, Americans at Home, 139.
135. New York Times, July 29, 1866; Trowbridge, The South, 464, 446–47.
136. New York Times, Aug. 30, 1867; Dennett, The South As It Is, 221; Trowbridge, The South, 463; 39 Cong., 1 Sess., Report of the Joint Committee on Reconstruction, Part III, 8; House Exec. Doc. 70, Freedmen’s Bureau, 201; Richardson, Negro in the Reconstruction of Florida, 164; Bvt. Col. A. E. Niles to Bvt. Maj. Gen. R. K. Scott, Dec. 10, 1866, Records of the Assistant Commissioners, South Carolina; Capt. W. G. Wedemeyer to Bvt. Maj. S. G. Greene, July 25, 1868, Records of the Assistant Commissioners, Mississippi (Letters Received), Freedmen’s Bureau.
137. Richardson, Negro in the Reconstruction of Florida, 40–41, 44; Trowbridge, The South, 499; Stampp, The Peculiar Institution, 220.
138. New Orleans Tribune, July 14, Nov. 29, 1865; Dennett, The South As It Is, 128; Reid, After the War, 51n.-52n.; 39 Cong., 1 Sess., Report of the Joint Committee on Reconstruction, Part II, 213. See also Ira Pettibone to “Bro. Whitney,” Feb. 22, 1865, American Missionary Assn. Archives.
139. Andrews, The South since the War, 189; Dennett, The South As It Is, 75. See also Dennett, The South As It Is, 111, 157, 168, 181; New York Times, Sept. 10, Oct. 1, 1865; Wharton, Negro in Mississippi, 134–35.
140. Dennett, The South As It Is, 54, 132.
141. Convention of the Freedmen of North Carolina (Raleigh, 1865), 5; Thomas W. Knox, Camp-fire and Cotton Field: Southern Adventure in Time of War (New York, 1865), 337. For examples of black jurymen, see Colored American, Dec. 30, 1865; New Orleans Tribune, July 4, 1867; New York Times, Aug. 25, 30, Sept. 1, Oct. 20, 1867; Williamson, After Slavery, 329; Wharton, Negro in Mississippi, 137.
142. William V. Turner to Gen. Wager Swayne, Nov. 17, 1865, and Prince Murell et al. to Gen. Wager Swayne, Dec. 17, 1865, Records of the Assistant Commissioners, Alabama (Letters Received), Freedmen’s Bureau; New Orleans Tribune, Nov. 11, Dec. 27, 1865, Sept. 2, 1866; Christian Recorder, Sept. 22, 1866. For protests of police abuses, see also C. P. Head et al., Vicksburg, to Brig. Gen. Samuel Thomas, April 17, 1866, Records of the Assistant Commissioners, Mississippi (Letters Received); New Orleans Tribune, May 10, 1865; 39 Cong., 1 Sess., Report of the Joint Committee on Reconstruction, Part II, 185. For examples of black police, see New Orleans Tribune, June 4, 6, 11, July 3, 1867; New York Times, Aug. 3, 10, Oct. 28, 1867. On the need for black police, see New Orleans Tribune, May 10, 1867.
143. Loyal Georgian, Feb. 24, 1866; New Orleans Tribune, July 14, 1865.
144. Swint (ed.), Dear Ones at Home, 169; New Orleans Tribune, March 22, June 7, July 18, 26, Aug. 31, 1865, Aug. 31, Sept. 1, 1866.
145. William Johnson to his parents, July 12, 1867, Main File, Henry E. Huntington Library; Letter from L. J. Leavy, July 4, 1866, Freedmen’s Bureau, Georgia (Registers of Letters Received); New York Times, April 2, 1866; “Report of the Commissioner of the Bureau of Refugees, Freedmen and Abandoned Lands, November 1, 1866,” in Report of the Secretary of War (Washington, D.C., 1867), Appendix, 733; Rev. Horace James, Annual Report of the Superintendent of Negro Affairs in North Carolina, 1864 … (Boston, n.d.), 21. See also New York Times, May 27, July 1, 1866.
146. James McMahon, City Clerk, Columbia, to Col. Mansfield, May 29, 1866; Col. Mansfield to Col. H. W. Smith, May 30, 1866; Letter from “a colored woman,” May 16, 1866, Records of the Assistant Commissioners, South Carolina (Letters Received), Freedmen’s Bureau.
Chapter Six: The Feel of Freedom: Moving About
1. Eppes, Negro of the Old South, 134.
2. Perdue et al. (eds.), Weevils in the Wheat, 213.
3. Myers (ed.), Children of Pride, 1292–93.
4. Ella Gertrude (Clanton) Thomas, Ms. Journal, entries for Dec. 12, 1864, May 7 to Oct. 9, 1865, Sept. 17, 1866, Duke Univ.
5. A. R. Salley to “My Dear Aunt,” Nov. 13, 1865, Bruce, Jones, Murchison Papers, Univ. of South Carolina.
6. Eppes, Negro of the Old South, 134.
7. Dr. Ethelred Philips to Dr. James J. Philips, Jan. 21, 1866, James J. Philips Collection, Univ. of North Carolina; Ball, The State That Forgot, 128; Emma E. Holmes, Ms. Diary, entry for June 15, 1865, Univ. of South Carolina. For freed slaves who equated departure with freedom, see also Duncan McLaurin to Gov. E. Hawley, May 23, 1866, McLaurin Papers, Duke Univ.; 39 Cong., 1 Sess., Report of the Joint Committee on Reconstruction, Part II, 99, 187, Part III, 118, 173; National Freedman, I (Nov. 15, 1865), 327; Rawick (ed.), American Slave, XVII: Fla. Narr., 103.
8. Mrs. Edward Smith Tennent to “My Dear Aunt” [Hattie Taylor], July 2, 1865, Dr. Edward Smith Tennent Papers, Univ. of South Carolina. For similar laments, see Hope L. Jones to “Aunt,” Feb. 28, 1866, Bruce, Jones, Murchison Papers, and Emma E. Holmes, Ms. Diary, Aug. 22, 1865, Univ. of South Carolina; Chamberlain, Old Days in Chapel Hill, 88; Myers (ed.), Children of Pride, 1248, 1274; Ravenel, Private Journal, 244; D. E. H. Smith (ed.), Mason Smith Family Letters, 205; New York Times, March 9, 1865; Peter Kolchin, First Freedom: The Responses of Alabama’s Blacks to Emancipation and Reconstruction (Westport, Conn., 1972), 6.
9. Rawick (ed.), American Slave, VIII: Ark. Narr. (Part 2), 14. See also II: S.C. Narr. (Part 1), 142; IV and V: Texas Narr. (Part 1), 162, 209, (Part 3), 192, (Part 4), 1.
10. Ibid., IV: Texas Narr. (Part 2), 81–85; Armstrong, Old Massa’s People, 319. See also Haviland, A Woman’s Life-Work, 266; Rawick (ed.), American Slave, XIV: N.C. Narr. (Part 1), 215.
11. Rawick (ed.), American Slave, XIII: Ga. Narr. (Part 3), 293; Sarah M. Payne to Mary M. Clendenin, Sept. 30, 1865, Hi
storical Society of Pennsylvania; Dennett, The South As It Is, 13–14.
12. Chesnut, Diary from Dixie, 538; Rawick (ed.), American Slave, XV: N.C. Narr. (Part 2), 290; XIII: Ga. Narr. (Part 3), 162. See also II: S.C. Narr. (Part 2), 84; VII: Miss. Narr., 28, 29–30.
13. Trowbridge, The South, 209; Rawick (ed.), American Slave, IX: Ark. Narr. (Part 4), 183–84.
14. Andrews, The South since the War, 25–26.
15. New Orleans Tribune, Nov. 12, 1865.
16. Eppes, Through Some Eventful Years, 284–85; Avary, Dixie after the War, 188.
17. Simkins and Patton, Women of the Confederacy, 251; LeConte, When the World Ended, 41, 112.
18. Grace B. Elmore, Ms. Diary, entry for May 30, 1865, Univ. of North Carolina; Mrs. Mary Jones to Mrs. Mary S. Mallard, Nov. 17, 1865, in Myers (ed.), Children of Pride, 1308.
19. Eppes, Through Some Eventful Years, 279–80, 285–86.
20. See, e.g., Dennett, The South As It Is, 127–28; National Freedman, I (July 15, 1865), 182; Rawick (ed.), American Slave, IV: Texas Narr. (Part 1), 60.
21. Dennett, The South As It Is, 223; 39 Cong., 1 Sess., House Exec. Doc. 70, Freedmen’s Bureau, 388–89; New York Times, Aug. 2, 1865.
22. New York Times, Aug. 31, 1865, April 9, 1866. See also 39 Cong., 1 Sess., Report of the Joint Committee on Reconstruction, Part III, 142. On the role of the Union Army and the Freedmen’s Bureau, see below, Chapters 7 and 8.
23. Ella Gertrude (Clanton) Thomas, Ms. Journal, entry for May 1865, Duke Univ.
24. H. R. Brinkerhoff to Maj. Gen. O. O. Howard, July 8, 1865, John L. Barnett to “Colonel,” June 27, 1865, Records of the Assistant Commissioners, Mississippi and North Carolina (Letters Received), Freedmen’s Bureau. See also Trowbridge, The South, 332, 461.
25. Dennett, The South As It Is, 364.
26. Ibid., 226–27, 364–65. See also Andrews, The South since the War, 207, 221; Botume, First Days Amongst the Contrabands, 209–10.
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