26. Easterby (ed.), South Carolina Rice Plantation, 212, 215; D. E. H. Smith (ed.), Mason Smith Family Letters, 248; Myers (ed.), Children of Pride, 1280, 1287, 1308–09.
27. Myers (ed.), Children of Pride, 1280; Williamson, After Slavery, 40; Leigh, Ten Years on a Georgia Plantation, 38; Jones (ed.), Heroines of Dixie, 268–69.
28. S. D. G. Niles to Maj. Gen. T. J. Wood, June 13, 1866, Records of the Assistant Commissioners, Mississippi (Letters Received), Freedmen’s Bureau; Rawick (ed.), American Slave, VI: Ala. Narr., 176–77; VII: Miss. Narr., 54.
29. Ella Gertrude (Clanton) Thomas, Ms. Journal, entries for May 27, 29, 1865, Duke Univ.
30. Dr. Ethelred Philips to Dr. James J. Philips, Oct. 24, 1865, James J. Philips Collection, Univ. of North Carolina; LeGrand, Journal, 263–64; D. E. H. Smith (ed.), Mason Smith Family Letters, 223; Emma E. Holmes, Ms. Diary, entries for Aug. 22, Oct. 1, 1865, Univ. of South Carolina; James C. Bonner, “Plantation Experiences of a New York Woman,” North Carolina Historical Review, XXIII (1956), 546.
31. Grace B. Elmore, Ms. Diary, entries for March 4, May 24, 30, 1865, Univ. of North Carolina.
32. Donald MacRae to Julia MacRae, Sept. 4, 1865, MacRae Papers, Duke Univ.
33. Dr. Ethelred Philips to Dr. James J. Philips, June 17, 1867, James J. Philips Collection, Univ. of North Carolina. See also Eppes, Through Some Eventful Years, 311.
34. William Heyward to James Gregorie, June 4, 1868, Gregorie-Elliott Collection, Univ. of North Carolina; Loring and Atkinson, Cotton Culture and the South, 5 (see also 11, 85, 87, 93).
35. Richardson, Negro in the Reconstruction of Florida, 54; New York Times, Oct. 8, 1865; 39 Cong., 2 Sess., Senate Exec. Doc. 6, Reports of the Assistant Commissioners of Freedmen [Jan. 3, 1867], 159; Loring and Atkinson, Cotton Culture and the South, 84, 87, 94; Claude H. Nolen, The Negro’s Image in the South: The Anatomy of White Supremacy (Lexington, Ky., 1967), 173–77; Reid, After the War, 397.
36. C. W. Clarke to Col. Samuel Thomas, June 29, 1865, Records of the Assistant Commissioners, Mississippi (Letters Received), Freedmen’s Bureau; Theodore B. Wilson, The Black Codes of the South (University, Ala., 1965), 45; 39 Cong., 2 Sess., Senate Exec. Doc. 6, Reports of the Assistant Commissioners of Freedmen [Jan. 3, 1867], 159; Taylor, Negro in the Reconstruction of Virginia, 109; Williamson, After Slavery, 117.
37. Moore (ed.), The Juhl Letters (Aug. 7, 1866), 108; Reid, After the War, 276; Taylor, Negro in the Reconstruction of Virginia, 122; Edward Barnwell Heyward to Allen C. Izard, July 16, 1866, Heyward Family Papers, Univ. of South Carolina.
38. Loring and Atkinson, Cotton Culture and the South, 71; Taylor, Negro in the Reconstruction of Virginia, 74–75; 39 Cong., 1 Sess., Report of the Joint Committee on Reconstruction, Part II, 109.
39. Richardson, Negro in the Reconstruction of Florida, 53.
40. Mrs. McKenzie Parker to Mrs. William Mason Smith, Nov. 6, 1865, in D. E. H. Smith (ed.), Mason Smith Family Letters, 246; Grace B. Elmore, Ms. Diary, entry for July 13, 1865, Univ. of North Carolina. See also Eppes, Through Some Eventful Years, 309–10.
41. Bryant (ed.), “A Yankee Soldier Looks at the Negro,” 145; Sarah M. Payne to Mary M. Clendenin, Sept. 30, 1865, Historical Society of Pennsylvania; Ella Gertrude (Clanton) Thomas, Ms. Journal, entries for May [26], 29, 1865, Duke Univ.
42. Emma E. Holmes, Ms. Diary, entry for May 3, 1865, Univ. of South Carolina; Avary, Dixie after the War, 188–89; Myers (ed.), Children of Pride, 1280.
43. Jervey and Ravenel, Two Diaries, 36; Simkins and Patton, Women of the Confederacy, 255; William Heyward to James Gregorie, June 4, 1868, Gregorie-Elliott Collection, Univ. of North Carolina. See also LeConte, When the World Ended, 54.
44. Andrews, War-Time Journal of a Georgia Girl, 373–74, 375.
45. Ibid., 374–75.
46. LeGrand, Journal, 99–100; Andrews, War-Time Journal of a Georgia Girl, 375–76, 378–80.
47. Emma E. Holmes, Ms. Diary, entries for End of May, June 15, Aug. 14, 25, 1865, Univ. of South Carolina.
48. Andrews, War-Time Journal of a Georgia Girl, 374; Chesnut, Diary from Dixie, 488; Stone, Brokenburn, 7–9. For the daily tasks of a housemaid under slavery, as recalled by an ex-slave who had assisted her mother, see Rawick (ed.), American Slave, VI: Ala. Narr., 416–17.
49. Eppes, Through Some Eventful Years, 310; Eppes, Negro of the Old South, 137, 139–40.
50. Trowbridge, The South, 328–29.
51. Rawick (ed.), American Slave, II: S.C. Narr. (Part 1), 22; Waterbury, Seven Years Among the Freedmen, 40.
52. D. E. H. Smith (ed.), Mason Smith Family Letters, 222; Hope L. Jones to “My Dear Aunt,” Feb. 28, 1866, Bruce-Jones-Murchison Papers, Univ. of South Carolina.
53. Trowbridge, The South, 291.
54. Dennett, The South As It Is, 15; Williamson, After Slavery, 73. See also Moore (ed.), The Juhl Letters (Aug. 31, 1865), 34.
55. Charles L. Wagandt, The Mighty Revolution: Negro Emancipation in Maryland, 1862–1864 (Baltimore, 1964), 42; 39 Cong., 1 Sess., Report of the Joint Committee on Reconstruction, Part IV, 16.
56. Andrews, The South since the War, 364; Fleming, Civil War and Reconstruction in Alabama, 386; Myers (ed.), Children of Pride, 1338. See also Moore (ed.), The Juhl Letters (Dec. 31, 1865), 59.
57. Andrews, War-Time Journal of a Georgia Girl, 340; Trowbridge, The South, 491.
58. Wharton, Negro in Mississippi, 54; Dennett, The South As It Is, 6, 15, 102–03; Reid, After the War, 337; Trowbridge, The South, 78–79; Macrae, Americans at Home, 132, 294–95; Haviland, A Woman’s Life-Work, 306; Loring and Atkinson, Cotton Culture and the South, 6–7, 11; Myers (ed.), Children of Pride, 1244; Moore (ed.), The Juhl Letters (Jan. 26, 1866), 71; Selma Mirror, as quoted in New Orleans Tribune, Dec. 19, 1865; 39 Cong., 1 Sess., Report of the Joint Committee on Reconstruction, Part II, 109.
59. Dennett, The South As It Is, 290; Grace B. Elmore, Ms. Diary, entry for March 4, 1865, Univ. of North Carolina. For similar predictions, see, e.g., Loring and Atkinson, Cotton Culture and the South, 6–7, 20; Trowbridge, The South, 78; Macrae, Americans at Home, 295; Duncan McLaurin to Gov. E. Hawley, May 23, 1866, McLaurin Papers, Duke Univ.; Roark, Masters Without Slaves, 138.
60. Loring and Atkinson, Cotton Culture and the South, 9; Hepworth, Whip, Hoe, and Sword, 49–50; 39 Cong., 1 Sess., Report of the Joint Committee on Reconstruction, Part II, 130; Dennett, The South As It Is, 15; Reid, After the War, 164–65. Planters would use this argument repeatedly to explain violations of labor contracts by blacks and the folly of monthly wage payments in cash.
61. Andrews, The South since the War, 364.
62. Macrae, Americans at Home, 321; 39 Cong., 1 Sess., Report of the Joint Committee on Reconstruction, Part III, 136; Moore (ed.), The Juhl Letters (July 22, 1865), 20; Dennett, The South As It Is, 15. On Dec. 2, 1866, the New Orleans Tribune reprinted this lament from the Brandon (Miss.) Republican: “Alas! he [the freedman] cannot sing and dance with the same zest now. He has no old master to furnish him food and raiment; no kind mistress to take care of him when he gets sick; no comfortable cabin to live in; no thick clothing to shield him from the storms; no banjo to pick, and his heart is so heavy he can’t sing and dance. Candidly, we have not seen or heard of a real old fashioned negro frolic since the poor darkey was set free.”
63. Trowbridge, The South, 136, 332.
64. Reid, After the War, 218.
65. Dennett, The South As It Is, 65.
66. Col. Samuel Thomas, Asst. Commissioner, Bureau of Refugees, Freedmen, and Abandoned Lands for Mississippi and N.E. Louisiana, to Gen. Carl Schurz, Sept. 28, 1865, in 39 Cong., 1 Sess., Senate Exec. Doc. 2, “Report of Carl Schurz on the States of South Carolina, Georgia, Alabama, Mississippi, and Louisiana,” in Message of the President of the United States, 81.
67. Andrews, The South since the War, 398.
68. Reid, After the War, 25, 44, 291, 337; Andrews, The South since the War, 398; 39 Cong., 1 Sess., Senate Exec. Doc. 2, “Report of Carl Schurz,” 16
–17; Wharton, Negro in Mississippi, 83; New York Times, Sept. 17, 1865.
69. Macon Telegraph, May 16, 1865, quoted in New York Times, June 16, 1865; Trowbridge, The South, 573; Reid, After the War, 343–44.
70. Ravenel, Private Journal, 256; Walter L. Fleming (ed.), Documentary History of Reconstruction (2 vols.; Cleveland, 1906–07), I, 282–83; Wharton, Negro in Mississippi, 84–85, 91–92; Wilson, Black Codes of the South, 74.
71. Andrews, The South since the War, 157–58; Dennett, The South As It Is, 161–62; Reid, After the War, 361.
72. New York Times, June 17, 1865; Dennett, The South As It Is, 133; Wharton, Negro in Mississippi, 84; Otto H. Olsen, Carpetbagger’s Crusade: The Life of Albion Winegar Tourgee (Baltimore, 1965), 34.
73. New Orleans Daily South, Nov. 19, 1865, quoted in Reid, After the War, 411; Edgefield (S.C.) Advertiser, Oct. 25, 1865, quoted in Wilson, Black Codes of the South, 145; Fleming (ed.), Documentary History of Reconstruction, I, 298–99.
74. The discussion of the Black Codes is based on the enactments compiled in “Laws in Relation to Freedmen,” 39 Cong., 2 Sess., Senate Exec. Doc. 6, Freedmen’s Affairs, 170–230; Edward McPherson, The Political History of the United States of America During the Period of Reconstruction (Washington, D.C., 1880), 29–44; and Fleming (ed.), Documentary History of Reconstruction, I, 273–312. See also Wharton, Negro in Mississippi, 83–89; Williamson, After Slavery, 72–76; Stampp, Era of Reconstruction, 79–80; and Wilson, Black Codes of the South, 65–80, 96–116. In examining the state legislation regarding the freedmen, care must be taken not to confuse laws proposed with those actually enacted; the northern press was not always clear on this point.
75. New Orleans Tribune, July 15, 19, 30, Aug. 20, 1865. For the Louisiana parish laws, see also 39 Cong., 1 Sess., Senate Exec. Doc. 2, “Report of Carl Schurz,” 92–96.
76. Trowbridge, The South, 373; Wilson, Black Codes of the South, 143; Wharton, Negro in Mississippi, 83.
77. Colored People to the Governor of Mississippi, Petition of the Freedmen of Claiborne County, Miss., Dec. 3, 1865, in Records of the Assistant Commissioners, Mississippi (Letters Received), Freedmen’s Bureau.
78. South Carolina Leader, Dec. 16, 1865; Loyal Georgian, Feb 17, 1866. For black protest, see also Colored American, Jan. 6, 13, 1866; Loyal Georgian, Feb. 3, 1866; South Carolina Leader, Dec. 23, 1865.
79. McPherson, Political History of the United States of America During the Period of Reconstruction, 36–38, 41–42; Williamson, After Slavery, 77–79; Fleming, Civil War and Reconstruction in Alabama, 378–79, 382–83; Wharton, Negro in Mississippi, 90–93; Taylor, Negro in the Reconstruction of Virginia, 18; Richardson, Negro in the Reconstruction of Florida, 43; Wilson, Black Codes of the South, 96–115.
80. Wharton, Negro in Mississippi, 91, 92; New Orleans Tribune, Aug. 20, 1865.
81. Sitterson, Sugar Country, 235; Stampp, The Peculiar Institution, 146; Andrews, The South since the War, 25. For similar sentiments, see also Jordan, Hugh Davis and His Alabama Plantation, 161; Trowbridge, The South, 390–91, 393; 39 Cong., 1 Sess., Report of the Joint Committee on Reconstruction, Part III, 5, 24–25.
82. Dennett, The South As It Is, 53. See also ibid., 77–82; Trowbridge, The South, 389; C. W. Clarke to Col. Samuel Thomas, June 29, 1865, Records of the Assistant Commissioners, Mississippi (Letters Received), Freedmen’s Bureau.
83. Dennett, The South As It Is, 129, 261, 252.
84. Andrews, The South since the War, 205, 362.
85. Rawick (ed.), American Slave, IV and V: Texas Narr. (Part 1), 280, (Part 3), 83–84. See also XIV: N.C. Narr. (Part 1), 72.
86. Ibid., VIII: Ark. Narr. (Part 2), 284; Trowbridge, The South, 291–92.
87. Andrews, The South since the War, 26; 39 Cong., 1 Sess., Report of the Joint Committee on Reconstruction, Part III, 3; Stone, Brokenburn, 368–69.
88. Trowbridge, The South, 427–28; Rawick (ed.), American Slave, XVIII: Unwritten History, 138. See also V: Texas Narr. (Part 3), 261.
89. Williamson, After Slavery, 88; John W. Burbidge to Joseph Glover, July 28, 1865, Glover-North Papers, Univ. of South Carolina; Rev. John Jones to Mrs. Jones, July 26, 1865, in Myers (ed.), Children of Pride, 1282–83. See also Dr. Ethelred Philips to Dr. James J. Philips, Aug. 2, 1865, James J. Philips Collection, Univ. of North Carolina; H. A. Johnson to “Dear Friend Samuel,” July 14, 1865, Univ. of North Carolina; Emma E. Holmes, Ms. Diary, entry for June 15, 1865, Univ. of South Carolina; Easterby (ed.), South Carolina Rice Plantation, 210–211; Oliphant et al. (eds.), Letters of William Gilmore Simms, IV, 505; LeConte, When the World Ended, 105, 115–16.
90. For the Union Army and the expulsion of freed slaves from the cities and towns, see above, Chapter 6. For the military role in imposing order on the plantations, se•, e.g., Petition of 18 Planters, Pine ville, Charleston District, Sept. 1, 1865, Trenholm Papers, Univ. of North Carolina; Ravenel, Private Journal, 223; Richardson, Negro in the Reconstruction of Florida, 56; New York Times, June 16, 1865.
91. Col. William E. Bayley to Commanding Officer, Vicksburg, Miss., July 3, 1865, Records of the Assistant Commissioners, Mississippi (Letters Received), Freedmen’s Bureau; New Orleans Tribune, April 11, 1865.
92. Eppes, Negro of the Old South, 125; Ball, The State That Forgot, 128; Reid, After the War, 419. See also Myers (ed.), Children of Pride, 1292–93.
93. Towne, Letters and Diary, 20; Knox, Camp-fire and Cotton Field, 316–17.
94. On wartime Federal labor policies in the South, see Gerteis, From Contraband to Freedman; Eaton, Grant, Lincoln, and the Freedmen; and Wiley, Southern Negroes, esp. 230–59. On white and black lessees, see Christian Recorder, July 16, 1864; New Orleans Tribune, July 11, 1865; Report of the General Superintendent of Freedmen, Department of the Tennessee and State of Arkansas for 1864 (Memphis, 1865), 14–15, 50; Knox, Camp-fire and Cotton Field, 320–21; National Freedman, I (Feb. 1, May 1, July 15, 1865), 16–17, 121, 187; New York Times, Nov. 13, 28, 1863, Aug. 2, Sept. 26, 1865; and the experience of Isaac Shoemaker in Roark, Masters Without Slaves, 118–19. On the Davis Bend project, see Col. Samuel Thomas, “Report of a Trip to Davis Bend, Waterproof and Natchez,” in Warren, Extracts from Reports of Superintendents of Freedmen; Reid, After the War, 279–87; Trowbridge, The South, 383–84; Knox, Camp-fire and Cotton Field, 353; National Freedman, I (Feb. 1, 1865), 25; New Orleans Tribune, July 9, 29, 1865; New York Times, Oct. 2, 1864, Aug. 22, 1865; Joseph E. Davis and Benjamin F. Montgomery, Article of Agreement, Oct. 31, 1865, Records of the Assistant Commissioners, Mississippi (Letters Received), Freedmen’s Bureau; Semi-Weekly Louisianian, May 14, 1871; New National Era, April 20, 1871; and Wharton, Negro in Mississippi, 38–42. After the war, Davis leased two plantations to Benjamin T. Montgomery, his former slave and plantation manager, who subsequently purchased the plantations and became a successful planter.
95. Emma E. Holmes, Ms. Diary, entry for June 15, 1865, Univ. of South Carolina.
96. Knox, Camp-fire and Cotton Field, 364–69; Black Republican, April 15, 1865; New York Times, Dec. 22, 1862, Jan. 16, March 5, April 17, 1863, Sept. 25, 1864; Sitterson, Sugar Country, 220–23; Gerteis, From Contraband to Freedman, 65–82; Wiley, Southern Negroes, 210–21; Messner, “Black Violence and White Response: Louisiana, 1862,” 31–37.
97. New Orleans Tribune, Aug. 13, Dec. 8, 1864, Jan. 28, Feb. 7, 18, March 14, 19, April 1, 9, July 29, 1865. See also ibid, Oct. 16, 1864, March 16, April 13, 1865. For a meeting to protest the labor system and the reaction of Federal authorities, see ibid., March 18, 19, 28, 29, 30, 1865.
98. New Orleans Tribune, Oct. 12, 1864; Gerteis, From Contraband to Freedman, 90, 113–14.
99. Messner, “Black Violence and White Response: Louisiana, 1862,” 36–37.
100. Ruffin, Diary, II, 601–03, 670–72.
101. Thomas Smith to Capt. J. H. Weber, Nov. 3, 1865, Records of the Assistant Commissioners, Mississippi (Letters Received), Freedmen’s Bureau.
102. Free Man’s Press, Sept. 12, 1868; 39 Cong.,
1 Sess., House Exec. Doc. 70, Freedmen’s Bureau, 263–64.
103. Lt. George Parliss to Lt. Stuart Eldridge, April 9, 1866; Capt. A. Preston to Eldridge, June 7, 1866; R. H. Willoughby to Bvt. Maj. A. M. Crawford, July 27, 1867; Capt. William A. Poillon to Brig. Gen. Wager Swayne, Nov. 1865; Capt. J. H. Weber to Col. Samuel Thomas, July 1, 1865, Records of the Assistant Commissioners, Mississippi (Parliss, Preston, Weber), South Carolina (Willoughby), Alabama (Poillon) (Letters Received), Freedmen’s Bureau; 39 Cong., 1 Sess., House Exec. Doc. 70, Freedmen’s Bureau, 2–3. For advice to freedmen, see also ibid., 2–3, 34–35, 92–93, 124–25, 231–32, 263–64, 309, 395, and 39 Cong., 1 Sess., Report of the Joint Committee on Reconstruction, Part II, 230–31; Colored Tennessean, Oct. 14, 1865; and Dennett, The South As It Is, 250.
104. S. D. G. Niles to Maj. Gen. T. J. Wood, June 13, 1866, Records of the Assistant Commissioners, Mississippi (Letters Received), Freedmen’s Bureau; Dennett, The South As It Is, 251–52. For native white praise of the Bureau, see also David Humphreys to Bvt. Maj. Gen. Swayne, Nov. 25, 1865, Records of the Assistant Commissioners, Alabama (Letters Received), Freedmen’s Bureau; Moore (ed.), The Juhl Letters (Sept. 4, 1865), 37–38; 39 Cong., 1 Sess., Senate Exec. Doc. 27, Reports of the Assistant Commissioners of the Freedmen’s Bureau [1865–1866], 81; Dennett, The South As It Is, 291–92; New York Times, Sept. 13, 1865; Taylor, Negro in Tennessee, 14–15; and Wharton, Negro in Mississippi, 78. For hostile white views, see Leigh, Ten Years on a Georgia Plantation, 33–34; Reid, After the War, 577–78; 39 Cong., 1 Sess., Report of the Joint Committee on Reconstruction, Part II, 113, 123; Wharton, Negro in Mississippi, 78.
105. 39 Cong., 1 Sess., Report of the Joint Committee on Reconstruction, Part II, 230; House Exec. Doc. 70, Freedmen’s Bureau, 231; Fisk, Plain Counsels for Freedmen, 12. See also O. O. Howard in National Freedman, I (Aug. 15, 1865), 234–35, and Col. J. L. Haynes to Capt. B. F. Henry, July 8, 1865, Records of the Assistant Commissioners, Mississippi (Letters Received), Freedmen’s Bureau.
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